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٢٦/١١/١٤٣٥ Chapter 3 Palestine Polytechnic University Department of Environmental Engineering Technology Course: Environment & Biological Diversity Instructor Dr. Ayman Salah Macromolecules General points about biological macromolecules 1- Functional groups give specific properties to molecules • Organic molecules and hydrocarbons • Each functional group has specific chemical properties, ١ Macromolecules Biological Molecules • Four kinds of molecules found in living things: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. • Most of these biological molecules are large polymers constructed by the covalent bonding of smaller molecules called monomers. Macromolecules General points about biological macromolecules 2- Isomers have different arrangements of the same atoms 3- The structures of macromolecules reflect their functions 4- Most macromolecules are formed by condensation and broken down by hydrolysis ٢٦/١١/١٤٣٥ Macromolecules Macromolecules Proteins: Functions of proteins Proteins: Chemical Structures of Proteins 1. Structural support (protein fibers) 2. Protection 3. Defense (antibodies) 4. transport (hemoglobin) 5. catalysis; Enzymes 6. Movement (actin, myosin) 7. Regulation (hormones) 8. Storage: (egg whites of birds, reptiles; seeds) The building blocks of proteins are Amino Acids. The a.a. have both a carboxyl functional group (COOH) and an amino functional group (NH2) attached to the same carbon atom, called the α carbon. a hydrogen atom or a side chain is attached to the a carbon atom. The side chains also contain functional groups (Table 3.2 page 43) Macromolecules Proteins: Chemical Structures of Proteins Peptide bonds form the backbone of a protein. N terminus and C terminus Two or more a a bonded together are called a peptide (polypeptide & protein) ٢ ٢٦/١١/١٤٣٥ Macromolecules Proteins: Levels of protein structure • The primary structure determines the further structures and the function of the protein • The Tertiary structure and the quaternary structure are the functional forms val his leu thr pro glu glu lys • The primary structure determines the further structures and the function of the protein Macromolecules Proteins: Environmental conditions affect protein structure Some Conditions can not break covalent bonds, but can upset the weaker noncovalent interactions that determine secondary and tertiary structure, may affect a protein's shape and thus its function Denaturation Couses: Increases in temperature , Alterations in pH, High concentrations of polar substances ٣ ٢٦/١١/١٤٣٥ Macromolecules Carbohydrates • carbohydrates are a group of molecules that contain C, H and O in the ratio 1:2:1. • The general formula for carbohydrates is (CH2O)n. • Functions of Carbohydrates: source of energy serve as carbon skeletons for biological structures. Macromolecules Carbohydrates : Monosaccharides • simple sugars have 3 to 7 carbon atoms. • may be linear or form rings (Figure 3.1 3 page 50) • Some are structural isomers; eg C6H12O6 ٤ Macromolecules Carbohydrates • There are four categories of biologically important carbohydrates: 1. Monosaccharides, simple sugars; glucose, ribose, and fructose. the monomers for the larger carbohydrates. 2. Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides linked together by covalent bonds. 3. Oligosaccharides (oligo, "several") are made up of several (3-20) monosaccharides. 4. Polysaccharides (poly, "many"), such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose Macromolecules Carbohydrates : Monosaccharides • Glycosidic linkages bond monosaccharides • The disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides are all constructed from monosaccharides that are covalently bonded together by condensation reactions ٢٦/١١/١٤٣٥ Macromolecules Macromolecules Carbohydrates : Disaccharides Carbohydrates : Polysaccharides • Disaccharides are composed of 2 monosaccharides. Sucrose: a glucose and a fructose molecule. lactose (milk sugar): glucose and galactose maltose :two glucose molecules. • Polysaccharides store energy and provide structural materials Macromolecules ٥ Macromolecules Lipids Lipids: Fats and oils • Lipids are hydrocarbons that are insoluble in water because of their many nonpolar covalent bonds • Several types of lipids with different functions: 1. Fats and oils store energy. 2. Phospholipids: in cell membrane structural. 3. The carotenoids : capture light energy. 4. Steroids: hormones and vitamins. 5. The fat in animal bodies : thermal insulation. 6. A lipid coating around nerves provides electrical insulation. 7. Oil or wax on the surfaces of skin, and feathers repels water. • Fats and oils are triglycerides, also known as simple lipids fats are solid at room temperature (20°C) oils are liquid at room temperature. ٢٦/١١/١٤٣٥ Macromolecules Macromolecules Lipids: Fats and oils Lipids - Phospholipids Saturated and Unsaturated Fats • In saturated FA, all the bonds between the carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain are single bondsthere are no double bonds(all the bonds are saturated with hydrogen atoms). • In unsaturated FA, the hydrocarbon chain contains which is packed one or more double bonds. tightly together? • A phosphate-containing compounds replaces one of the fatty acids of triglycerides Macromolecules Nucleic Acids hydrophilic “head” and hydrophobi c “tails Macromolecules Nucleic Acids • NAs are polymers specialized for the storage, transmission, and use of genetic information • There are two types of nucleic acids: 1. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 2. RNA (ribonucleic acid) . Nucleic acids are composed of monomers called nucleotides ٦ Two types of Nitrogen bases occur in nucleotides ٢٦/١١/١٤٣٥ Macromolecules Nucleic Acids • In NA the backbone of the macromolecule consists of a chain of alternating pentose sugars and phosphate groups (sugar-phosphatesugar-phosphate). • The nucleotides are joined by phosphodiester linkages between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next ٧ Macromolecules Nucleic Acids