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A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience ◦ Distinguishes between changes due to maturation and changes brought about by experience ◦ Distinguishes between short-term changes in performance and actual learning Type of learning discovered by Ivan Pavlov in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response A stimulus that, before conditioning,does not naturally bring about the response of interest A stimulus that brings about a response without having been learned Classical Conditioning A natural, innate response that is not associated with previous learning Classical Conditioning A NS that has been paired with a UCS to bring about a response formerly caused only by the UCS A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus Extinction ◦ Occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears Spontaneous recovery ◦ The re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest Stimulus generalization ◦ Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus Conditioned Stimulus New Stimulus Stimulus discrimination ◦ Ability to differentiate between stimuli Operant Conditioning ◦ Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences Law of effect ◦ Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, and responses followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated Reinforcement ◦ The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated Reinforcer ◦ Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again Primary reinforcer ◦ Satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of a person’s prior experience Secondary reinforcer ◦ A stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcement Positive Reinforcement ◦ A stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response Negative reinforcement ◦ Unpleasant stimulus whose removal from the environment leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will occur again in the future ◦ Escape conditioning ◦ Avoidance conditioning Stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again ◦ Positive punishment weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus ◦ Negative punishment consists of the removal of something pleasant Continuous reinforcement ◦ Behavior that is reinforced every time it occurs Partial reinforcement ◦ Behavior that is reinforced some but not all of the time Fixed-ratio schedule ◦ Reinforcement is given only after a certain number of responses Variable-ratio schedule ◦ Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number Fixed-interval schedule ◦ Provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, overall rates of response are relatively low Variable-interval schedule ◦ Time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed Stimulus Control Training ◦ Behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence Discriminative stimulus ◦ Signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow the response Stimulus generalization Superstitious behavior Shaping ◦ Process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Biological constraints ◦ Built-in limitations in the ability of animals to learn particular behaviors Latent learning ◦ A new behavior is learned but not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided for displaying it Observational learning ◦ Learning through observing the behavior of another person called a model