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Unit VI: Learning Unit VI Modules Module 26: How We Learn & Classical Conditioning Module 27: Operant Conditioning Module 28: Operant Conditioning vs Classical Conditioning Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning Module 30: Learning By Observation Module 26: How We Learn & Classical Conditioning Define learning, and identify some basic forms of learning. 26-1: How We Learn Learning is the process of acquiring new and enduring (relatively) information or behaviors – learning enables humans to adapt to environmental challenges – while there are different forms of learning, Association (connecting events) is a critical component – we learn to connect events – research shows that Associative Learning takes approximately 2 months to occur The process of Associative Learning (Conditioning) takes 2 major forms: Classical Conditioning: learn to associate to Stimuli (any event / situation that evokes a response) Operant Conditioning: learn to associate a response and its consequence Aside from Conditioning, humans also learn through Cognitive Learning: the acquisition of information through observation or language Animal Training – http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/animal-training/animal-behavior-and-learning/ Module 26: How We Learn & Classical Conditioning Describe the components of classical conditioning, and explain behaviorism’s view of learning. 26-2: Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov’s work with dogs established Classical Conditioning: form of associative learning in which one links stimuli and anticipate events – in researching the digestive systems of dogs, Pavlov proved that some reflexive responses could be associated with new stimuli - Pavlov first observed that dogs produced saliva when food was put in their mouths - Pavlov then observed that dogs would salivate when dogs saw food and / or heard researchers approaching cage – concluded that dogs had learned to associate - Pavlov experimented by ringing bell when providing food – Pavlov observed that dogs began salivating upon hearing the bell even without presence of food - the stimulus (bell) influenced a behavior (salivating) Unconditioned Response (UCR) – unlearned, naturally occurring response (salivating when given food) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)- stimulus that causes / triggers an innate, unlearned response (food) *the UCS – UCR connection involves no learning Conditioned Response (CR) - learned response (salivating when hearing bell) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - stimulus that, after association, triggers a response (bell) *the CS – CR connection involves associative learning Classical Conditioning https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI The Office - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nE8pFWP5QDM Module 26: How We Learn & Classical Conditioning Summarize the processes of classical conditioning – acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination. 26-3: Pavlov identified 5 Conditioning Processes: Acquisition: initial learning of the response Extinction: if CS (bell) occurs w/out the UCS (food) the CR (salivating) is suppressed – learn not to respond to CS Spontaneous Recovery: reappearance of a weakened CR – CR is suppressed not eliminated Generalization: tendency to respond to stimuli similar to CS – dogs salivated to different bell tones Discrimination: ability to distinguish between CS & similar stimuli (bell v horn) Higher-Order Conditioning – a second NS can be paired with the CS (a light with the bell) and cause a behavioral response Classical Conditioning helps animals survive by facilitating behavior that helps it gain food, avoid danger, locate mates, and reproduce Module 26: How We Learn & Classical Conditioning Explain the importance of Pavlov’s work, and describe applications to human behavior. 26-4: Applications of Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s work was the foundation of much of the work of psychologist John B. Watson – Watson believed psychology should focus on how organisms respond to stimuli in the environment (Behaviorism) – today most psychologists agree that classical conditioning is the basic form of learning by which all organisms adapt to their environment Watson applied Pavlov’s work to humans – Watson believed that although human behaviors were biologically influenced – they were often conditioned – Watson (& Rosalie Raynor) conducted experiments on infants to see if humans could be conditioned to fear rats (Little Albert / Baby Albert) – classical conditioning is important – if behavior is learned then it can be unlearned Counter-Conditioning is a form of therapy used to get people change unwanted behaviors through the application of conditioning processes Baby Albert https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMnhyGozLyE Frasier - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2c4_l2oe22U Module 27: Operant Conditioning Describe operant conditioning, and explain how behavior is reinforced. 27-1: Operant Conditioning Classical conditioning involves Respondent Behavior (actions that are automatic responses to a stimulus), classical conditioning doesn’t explain all human behavior – another form of associative learning is Operant Conditioning: type of learning where behavior is reinforced through use of rewards & punishments – BF Skinner (perhaps modern psychology’s most significant figure) worked with an idea proposed by Edward Thorndike (rewarded behaviors occur more often) – Skinner experimented on pigeons using Shaping: use of reinforces to guide behavior – he was able to get pigeons peck or spin around depending on what words were flashed on a screen– Skinner used Positive Reinforcement: rewards that encourage desirable behavior Operant Conditioning http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA Classical vs Operant Conditioning Activity http://www.ar.cc.mn.us/biederman/courses/p1110/conditioning2.htm Module 27: Operant Conditioning Discuss the differences between positive and negative reinforcement, and identify basic types of reinforcers. 27-2: Types of Reinforcers Skinner identified 2 types of Reinforcer: any consequence that strengthens a behavior – Positive Reinforcement: rewards that encourage desirable behavior – getting paid for work Negative Reinforcement: strengthens a behavior by removing something undesirable – putting on sunscreen to avoid getting sunburned (sunscreen removes aversive stimulus sunburn) *Negative reinforcement is not punishment – negative reinforcement provides relief Positive & Negative Reinforcement Big Bang Theory - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JA96Fba-WHk Module 27: Operant Conditioning Explain how reinforcement schedules affect behavior. 27-3: Reinforcement Schedules Although behavior is more quickly shaped through Continuous Reinforcement, real life rarely provides continuous reinforcement – Partial / Intermittent Reinforcement: reinforcement varies, occurs randomly Skinner experimented with a Reinforcement Schedule: a pattern that defines how often reinforcement occurs – Skinner identified different Reinforcement Schedules: Fixed-Ratio Schedule: reinforcement occurs after a specified number of responses Variable-Ratio Schedule: reinforcement occurs at different times Fixed-Interval Schedule: reward schedule that reinforces only after a specified amount of time has passed Variable-Interval Schedule: reward schedule that reinforces at unpredictable time intervals Schedules of Reinforcement https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JoP-2wn-2rY Module 27: Operant Conditioning Discuss how punishment affects behavior. 27-4: Punishment While reinforcement increases a behavior, Punishment decreases a behavior – punishment can be positive or negative: Positive Punishment: adding an undesirable stimulus – a fine for illegal parking Negative Punishment: removal of a desired stimulus – revoking a driver’s license Both reinforcements and punishments influence behavior, but psychologists view reinforcement as more effective – reinforcement makes it clear what is desirable – the drawbacks to punishment: punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten punishment results in discrimination among situations punishment can result in fear – fear can lead to anxiety, avoidance, and aggression “What punishment often teaches, is how to avoid it.” - BF Skinner Using Reinforcement to Shape Behavior https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVbGSVhKGwA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6F0bRTurPk Module 27: Operant Conditioning Skinner’s Legacy. 27-5: Skinner’s Legacy Behaviorism (and Skinner) has had it critics – Skinner dismissed the importance of anything internal (consciousness, thoughts, feelings) and focused solely on behavior as a product of external forces Module 28: Operant Conditioning’s Applications, and Comparison to Classical Conditioning Identify ways to apply operant conditioning principles for self improvement. 28-1: Applications of Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning can be used for self-improvement – Skinner believed immediate feedback in school would improve student learning – using operant conditioning to reinforce small successes while gradually increasing the challenge can help us in all aspects of our lives: school, athletics, work, home, selfimprovement To apply operant conditioning in your own life: State goals in measurable terms: increase study time by 1 hour per day Monitor how often you engage in the desired behavior: log time, identify conditions when you do & don’t study Reinforce the desired behavior: reward yourself only after you have completed the behavior Reduce rewards gradually: as behavior becomes more habitual decrease reward Module 28: Operant Conditioning’s Applications, and Comparison to Classical Conditioning Identify the characteristics that distinguish operant and classical conditioning. 28-2: Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Overview Organism associates events Organism associates behavior & resulting events Response Involuntary, Automatic Voluntary, Operates on environment Acquisition Associating events, a NS is paired w/ US and becomes CS Associating response w/ a consequence Extinction CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone Responding decreases when reinforcement stops Spontaneous Recovery The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response Generalization Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to CS Response to similar stimuli is reinforced Discrimination Learned ability to distinguish between CS and other stimuli Organism learns that certain responses will be reinforced Conditioning - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0wT0pTNONyQ Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning Explain how biological constraints affect classical and operant conditioning. 29-1: Biological Constraints on Conditioning Learning is a product of the interaction between biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences A species’ predispositions prepare it to learn associations that enhance its survival – research shows that many species (rats & humans) are biologically primed to develop taste aversion – birds are biologically primed to develop sight aversion – natural selection favors traits that enhance survival The tendency to learn behaviors favored by natural selection may explain some fascinating research: Red Enhances Men’s Attraction to Women - Andrew J. Elliot and Daniela Niesta - University of Rochester In many nonhuman primates, the color red enhances males’ attraction to females. In 5 experiments, the authors demonstrate a parallel effect in humans: red, relative to other achromatic and chromatic colors, leads men to view women as more attractive and more sexually desirable. Men seem unaware of this red effect, and red does not influence women’s perceptions of the attractiveness of other women, nor men’s perceptions of women’s overall likeability, kindness, or intelligence. The findings have clear practical implications for men and women in the mating game and, perhaps, for fashion consultants, product designers, and marketers. Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning Explain how biological constraints affect classical and operant conditioning. 29-1: Biological Constraints on Conditioning Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive, so conditioning can not be used to teach a species to do anything – behaviors must serve a survival purpose – despite conditioning, animals are also prone to returning to biologically predisposed behavioral patterns Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning Explain how cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning. 29-2: Cognitive Processes and Conditioning Cognition is an important component of conditioning – the conditioned response is strengthened by the predictability (anticipation) of an association – associations influence attitudes – studies show children learn to prefer characters associated with more desirable treats over those associated with less desirable treats – with humans it is not only the Conditioned Stimulus, but also our thinking about the conditioned stimulus that is important Latent Learning: learning that occurs, but is not evident at the time Edward Tolman rat research showed rats develop a Cognitive Map: mental representation of the layout of one’s environment (hippocampus) Insight Learning: the sudden realization of a problem’s solution (Wolfgang Kohler) Intrinsic Motivation: a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake – research shows conditioning can destroy intrinsic motivation – using rewards can result in Overjustification: people learn to see their behavior as externally controlled Extrinsic Motivation: a desire to perform a behavior to receive rewards or avoid punishments Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning Explain how cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning. 29-2: Cognitive Processes and Conditioning Biological and Cognitive Influences on Conditioning Classical Conditioning Biological Predispositions Cognitive Processes Operant Conditioning Natural predispositions constrain what stimuli & responses are associated Organisms best learn behaviors similar to natural behaviors – unnatural behaviors drift back to predisposed behaviors Organisms develop expectations that Conditioned Stimulus (CS) signals arrival of Unconditioned Stimulus (US) – bell means food Organisms develop expectations that a response will be reinforced or punished Latent & Insight Learning also occur Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning Identify ways that people cope with personal problems. 29-3: Learning & Personal Control Emotional, cognitive, and behavioral methods enable us to Cope (alleviate stress) with problems that arise – Problem-focused Coping is an attempt to alleviate stress by addressing the stressor (approach used when we believe we can control a situation) Emotion-focused Coping is avoiding a stressor (used to alleviate stress when we feel we cannot change a situation) Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning Describe how a perceived lack of control can affect behavior and health. 29-4: Learned Helplessness Uncontrollable threats trigger the strongest stress responses – repeatedly feeling helpless and oppressed leads to Learned Helplessness: belief that one has no control over a situation Uncontrollable bad events Perceived lack of personal control Learned helplessness Perceived control is basic to human functioning – people that lack control are more likely be sick and even have shorter life spans (stress = more cortisol in the body) People differ in how much control they believe they have in their lives – External Locus of Control: the perception that we lack control over the factors that influence our lives Internal Locus of Control: the perception that we have control over the factors that influence our lives Studies show more and more Americans endorse an external locus of control – may explain the increase in depression and other psychological disorder rates in the US Self-Control: the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for long-term rewards – research shows the more self-control one exhibits the healthier and more successful the individual is Module 30: Biology, Cognition, and Learning Describe the process of observational learning. 30-1: Learning by Observation Observational / Social Learning: learning through observation rather than direct experience – through observation humans learn to anticipate a behavior’s consequences Modeling: the process of observing and imitating observed behavior Albert Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment proved children learn through imitation Bobo Doll Experiment: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqNaLerMNOE Mirror Neurons: the human brain possesses neurons that fire when performing certain actions or watching others perform certain actions – our brains show the same neural activity as one we are observing – thought to be neural basis for observational learning Mirror Neurons: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fkj_jIyiTxw Module 30: Biology, Cognition, and Learning Discuss the impact of prosocial and antisocial modeling. 30-2: Applications of Observational Learning Bandura’s work and mirror neuron research show that humans learn through observation and imitation Prosocial models can influence prosocial behavior (positive, constructive, helpful behavior) Antisocial models can influence antisocial behavior (negative, critical, damaging behavior) Models are most effective when behavior is consistent Observational learning speaks to the ways in which we learn to behave (are socialized) through: our interactions with and connections to other people participation in various social institutions • research shows the media (TV, film, Internet) is a powerful source of observational learning