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Unit VI: Learning
Unit VI Modules Module 26: How We Learn & Classical Conditioning
Module 27: Operant Conditioning
Module 28: Operant Conditioning vs Classical Conditioning
Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning
Module 30: Learning By Observation
Module 26: How We Learn & Classical Conditioning
Define learning, and identify some basic forms of learning. 26-1: How We Learn
Learning is the process of acquiring new and enduring (relatively) information or behaviors – learning
enables humans to adapt to environmental challenges – while there are different forms of learning,
Association (connecting events) is a critical component – we learn to connect events – research shows
that Associative Learning takes approximately 2 months to occur
The process of Associative Learning (Conditioning) takes 2 major forms:
Classical Conditioning: learn to associate to Stimuli (any event / situation that evokes a response)
Operant Conditioning: learn to associate a response and its consequence
Aside from Conditioning, humans also learn through Cognitive Learning:
the acquisition of information through observation or language
Animal Training –
http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/animal-training/animal-behavior-and-learning/
Module 26: How We Learn & Classical Conditioning
Describe the components of classical conditioning,
and explain behaviorism’s view of learning. 26-2: Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov’s work with dogs established Classical Conditioning: form of associative learning in which one
links stimuli and anticipate events – in researching the digestive systems of dogs, Pavlov proved that
some reflexive responses could be associated with new stimuli
- Pavlov first observed that dogs produced saliva when food was put in their mouths
- Pavlov then observed that dogs would salivate when dogs saw food and / or heard researchers
approaching cage – concluded that dogs had learned to associate
- Pavlov experimented by ringing bell when providing food – Pavlov observed that dogs began
salivating upon hearing the bell even without presence of food - the stimulus (bell)
influenced a behavior (salivating)
Unconditioned Response (UCR) – unlearned, naturally occurring response (salivating when given food)
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)- stimulus that causes / triggers an innate, unlearned response (food)
*the UCS – UCR connection involves no learning
Conditioned Response (CR) - learned response (salivating when hearing bell)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - stimulus that, after association, triggers a response (bell)
*the CS – CR connection involves associative learning
Classical Conditioning
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI
The Office - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nE8pFWP5QDM
Module 26: How We Learn & Classical Conditioning
Summarize the processes of classical conditioning – acquisition, extinction,
spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination. 26-3:
Pavlov identified 5 Conditioning Processes:
Acquisition: initial learning of the response
Extinction: if CS (bell) occurs w/out the UCS (food)
the CR (salivating) is suppressed – learn not to
respond to CS
Spontaneous Recovery: reappearance of a weakened
CR – CR is suppressed not eliminated
Generalization: tendency to respond to stimuli
similar to CS – dogs salivated to different bell
tones
Discrimination: ability to distinguish between CS &
similar stimuli (bell v horn)
Higher-Order Conditioning – a second NS can be paired with the CS (a light with the bell) and cause a
behavioral response
Classical Conditioning helps animals survive by facilitating behavior that helps it gain food, avoid danger,
locate mates, and reproduce
Module 26: How We Learn & Classical Conditioning
Explain the importance of Pavlov’s work, and
describe applications to human behavior. 26-4: Applications of Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s work was the foundation of much of the work of psychologist John B. Watson – Watson believed
psychology should focus on how organisms respond to stimuli in the environment (Behaviorism) –
today most psychologists agree that classical conditioning is the basic form of learning by which all
organisms adapt to their environment
Watson applied Pavlov’s work to humans – Watson believed that although human behaviors were biologically
influenced – they were often conditioned – Watson (& Rosalie Raynor) conducted experiments on
infants to see if humans could be conditioned to fear rats (Little Albert / Baby Albert) – classical
conditioning is important – if behavior is learned then it can be unlearned Counter-Conditioning is a
form of therapy used to get people change unwanted behaviors through the application of conditioning
processes
Baby Albert
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMnhyGozLyE
Frasier - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2c4_l2oe22U
Module 27: Operant Conditioning
Describe operant conditioning, and explain how behavior is reinforced. 27-1: Operant Conditioning
Classical conditioning involves Respondent Behavior (actions that are automatic responses to a stimulus),
classical conditioning doesn’t explain all human behavior – another form of associative learning is
Operant Conditioning: type of learning where behavior is reinforced through use of rewards &
punishments – BF Skinner (perhaps modern psychology’s most significant figure) worked with an idea
proposed by Edward Thorndike (rewarded behaviors occur more often) – Skinner experimented on
pigeons using Shaping: use of reinforces to guide behavior – he was able to get pigeons peck or spin
around depending on what words were flashed on a screen– Skinner used Positive Reinforcement:
rewards that encourage desirable behavior
Operant Conditioning
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA
Classical vs Operant Conditioning Activity
http://www.ar.cc.mn.us/biederman/courses/p1110/conditioning2.htm
Module 27: Operant Conditioning
Discuss the differences between positive and negative reinforcement,
and identify basic types of reinforcers. 27-2: Types of Reinforcers
Skinner identified 2 types of Reinforcer: any consequence that strengthens a behavior –
Positive Reinforcement: rewards that encourage desirable behavior – getting paid for work
Negative Reinforcement: strengthens a behavior by removing something undesirable – putting on
sunscreen to avoid getting sunburned (sunscreen removes aversive stimulus sunburn)
*Negative reinforcement is not punishment – negative reinforcement provides relief
Positive & Negative Reinforcement
Big Bang Theory - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JA96Fba-WHk
Module 27: Operant Conditioning
Explain how reinforcement schedules affect behavior. 27-3: Reinforcement Schedules
Although behavior is more quickly shaped through Continuous Reinforcement, real life rarely provides
continuous reinforcement – Partial / Intermittent Reinforcement: reinforcement varies, occurs
randomly
Skinner experimented with a Reinforcement Schedule: a pattern that defines how often reinforcement occurs
– Skinner identified different Reinforcement Schedules:
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: reinforcement occurs after a specified number of responses
Variable-Ratio Schedule: reinforcement occurs at different times
Fixed-Interval Schedule: reward schedule that reinforces only after a specified amount of time
has passed
Variable-Interval Schedule: reward schedule that reinforces at unpredictable time intervals
Schedules of Reinforcement
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JoP-2wn-2rY
Module 27: Operant Conditioning
Discuss how punishment affects behavior. 27-4: Punishment
While reinforcement increases a behavior, Punishment decreases a behavior – punishment can be positive or
negative:
Positive Punishment: adding an undesirable stimulus – a fine for illegal parking
Negative Punishment: removal of a desired stimulus – revoking a driver’s license
Both reinforcements and punishments influence behavior, but psychologists view reinforcement as more
effective – reinforcement makes it clear what is desirable – the drawbacks to punishment:
punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten
punishment results in discrimination among situations
punishment can result in fear – fear can lead to anxiety, avoidance, and aggression
“What punishment often teaches, is how to avoid it.”
- BF Skinner
Using Reinforcement to Shape Behavior
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVbGSVhKGwA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6F0bRTurPk
Module 27: Operant Conditioning
Skinner’s Legacy. 27-5: Skinner’s Legacy
Behaviorism (and Skinner) has had it critics – Skinner dismissed the importance of anything internal
(consciousness, thoughts, feelings) and focused solely on behavior as a product of external forces
Module 28: Operant Conditioning’s Applications,
and Comparison to Classical Conditioning
Identify ways to apply operant conditioning principles for self improvement. 28-1: Applications of Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning can be used for self-improvement – Skinner believed immediate feedback in school
would improve student learning – using operant conditioning to reinforce small successes while gradually
increasing the challenge can help us in all aspects of our lives: school, athletics, work, home, selfimprovement
To apply operant conditioning in your own life:
State goals in measurable terms: increase study time by 1 hour per day
Monitor how often you engage in the desired behavior: log time, identify conditions when you do &
don’t study
Reinforce the desired behavior: reward yourself only after you have completed the behavior
Reduce rewards gradually: as behavior becomes more habitual decrease reward
Module 28: Operant Conditioning’s Applications,
and Comparison to Classical Conditioning
Identify the characteristics that distinguish operant and classical conditioning. 28-2: Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Overview
Organism associates events
Organism associates behavior & resulting events
Response
Involuntary, Automatic
Voluntary, Operates on environment
Acquisition
Associating events, a NS is paired w/ US and
becomes CS
Associating response w/ a consequence
Extinction
CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented
alone
Responding decreases when reinforcement stops
Spontaneous
Recovery
The reappearance, after a rest period, of an
extinguished CR
The reappearance, after a rest period, of an
extinguished response
Generalization
Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to CS
Response to similar stimuli is reinforced
Discrimination
Learned ability to distinguish between CS and
other stimuli
Organism learns that certain responses will be
reinforced
Conditioning - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0wT0pTNONyQ
Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning
Explain how biological constraints affect classical and operant conditioning. 29-1: Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Learning is a product of the interaction between biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences
A species’ predispositions prepare it to learn associations that enhance its survival – research shows that many
species (rats & humans) are biologically primed to develop taste aversion – birds are biologically primed to
develop sight aversion – natural selection favors traits that enhance survival
The tendency to learn behaviors favored by natural selection may explain some fascinating research:
Red Enhances Men’s Attraction to Women
- Andrew J. Elliot and Daniela Niesta - University of Rochester
In many nonhuman primates, the color red enhances males’ attraction to females. In 5 experiments, the authors
demonstrate a parallel effect in humans: red, relative to other achromatic and chromatic colors, leads men to view women
as more attractive and more sexually desirable. Men seem unaware of this red effect, and red does not influence women’s
perceptions of the attractiveness of other women, nor men’s perceptions of women’s overall likeability, kindness, or
intelligence. The findings have clear practical implications for men and women in the mating game and, perhaps, for
fashion consultants, product designers, and marketers.
Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning
Explain how biological constraints affect classical and operant conditioning. 29-1: Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive, so conditioning
can not be used to teach a species to do anything – behaviors must serve a survival purpose – despite
conditioning, animals are also prone to returning to biologically predisposed behavioral patterns
Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning
Explain how cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning. 29-2: Cognitive Processes and Conditioning
Cognition is an important component of conditioning – the conditioned response is strengthened by the
predictability (anticipation) of an association – associations influence attitudes – studies show children
learn to prefer characters associated with more desirable treats over those associated with less desirable
treats – with humans it is not only the Conditioned Stimulus, but also our thinking about the conditioned
stimulus that is important
Latent Learning: learning that occurs, but is not evident at the time
Edward Tolman rat research showed rats develop a Cognitive Map: mental representation of the layout
of one’s environment (hippocampus)
Insight Learning: the sudden realization of a problem’s solution (Wolfgang Kohler)
Intrinsic Motivation: a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake – research shows conditioning can
destroy intrinsic motivation – using rewards can result in Overjustification: people learn to see their
behavior as externally controlled
Extrinsic Motivation: a desire to perform a behavior to receive rewards or avoid punishments
Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning
Explain how cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning. 29-2: Cognitive Processes and Conditioning
Biological and Cognitive Influences on Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Biological
Predispositions
Cognitive
Processes
Operant Conditioning
Natural predispositions constrain
what stimuli & responses are
associated
Organisms best learn behaviors
similar to natural behaviors –
unnatural behaviors drift back to
predisposed behaviors
Organisms develop expectations
that Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
signals arrival of Unconditioned
Stimulus (US) – bell means food
Organisms develop expectations that
a response will be reinforced or
punished
Latent & Insight Learning also occur
Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning
Identify ways that people cope with personal problems. 29-3: Learning & Personal Control
Emotional, cognitive, and behavioral methods enable us to Cope (alleviate stress) with problems that arise –
Problem-focused Coping is an attempt to alleviate stress by addressing the stressor (approach used
when we believe we can control a situation)
Emotion-focused Coping is avoiding a stressor (used to alleviate stress when we feel we cannot change
a situation)
Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning
Describe how a perceived lack of control can affect behavior and health. 29-4: Learned Helplessness
Uncontrollable threats trigger the strongest stress responses – repeatedly feeling helpless and oppressed leads
to Learned Helplessness: belief that one has no control over a situation
Uncontrollable bad events
Perceived lack of personal control
Learned helplessness
Perceived control is basic to human functioning – people that lack control are more likely be sick and even
have shorter life spans (stress = more cortisol in the body)
People differ in how much control they believe they have in their lives –
External Locus of Control: the perception that we lack control over the factors that influence our lives
Internal Locus of Control: the perception that we have control over the factors that influence our lives
Studies show more and more Americans endorse an external locus of control – may explain the increase in
depression and other psychological disorder rates in the US
Self-Control: the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for long-term rewards –
research shows the more self-control one exhibits the healthier and more successful the individual is
Module 30: Biology, Cognition, and Learning
Describe the process of observational learning. 30-1: Learning by Observation
Observational / Social Learning: learning through observation rather than direct experience – through
observation humans learn to anticipate a behavior’s consequences
Modeling: the process of observing and imitating observed behavior
Albert Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment proved children learn through imitation
Bobo Doll Experiment:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqNaLerMNOE
Mirror Neurons: the human brain possesses neurons that fire when performing certain actions or watching
others perform certain actions – our brains show the same neural activity as one we are observing –
thought to be neural basis for observational learning
Mirror Neurons:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fkj_jIyiTxw
Module 30: Biology, Cognition, and Learning
Discuss the impact of prosocial and antisocial modeling. 30-2: Applications of Observational Learning
Bandura’s work and mirror neuron research show that humans learn through observation and imitation
Prosocial models can influence prosocial behavior (positive, constructive, helpful behavior)
Antisocial models can influence antisocial behavior (negative, critical, damaging behavior)
Models are most effective when behavior is consistent
Observational learning speaks to the ways in which we learn to behave (are socialized) through:
our interactions with and connections to other people
participation in various social institutions
• research shows the media (TV, film, Internet) is a powerful source of observational learning