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Learning
•
A man who carries a cat by
the tail learns something that
he can learn in no other way.
—Mark Twain
Names to Know:
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Albert Bandura
John Garcia
Ivan Pavlov
Robert Rescorla
B.F. Skinner
Edward Thorndike
Edward Tolman
John Watson
Learning
•
A man who carries a cat by the
tail learns something that he
can learn in no other way.
—Mark Twain
•
A relatively permanent change
in behavior that occurs through
experience
– Associative learning
– Observational learning
Associative Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
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Ivan Pavlov
Early 1900s
Dogs
Reflex Behaviors
▫ Stimulus / Response
B.F. Skinner
Mid 1900s
Pigeons / Rats
Voluntary Behaviors
▫ Reinforcement /
Punishment
•I am going to try to classically condition
YUMMY!
you to a salivation response to the word
“PAVLOV.”
•You will receive a small sample of
sweetened lemonade mix.
•As I read about Ivan Pavlov, each time I
say the word “Pavlov,” dip a moistened
finger tip in the lemonade mix and touch
your tongue. Will you salivate?
•At a point in the reading, I will ask you to
stop the use of the lemonade powder with
the word “Pavlov.”
Ivan Pavlov
• Russian physiologist
▫ Won the Nobel Prize in 1904
▫ Was NOT a psychologist
• Was experimenting with
salivating dogs
▫ Reflexes
Classical Conditioning Terminology
•UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without
having been learned.
•UCR: Unconditioned Response
A response that is natural and needs no training.
•NS: Neutral Stimulus
A stimulus that evokes no response normally
•CS: Conditioned Stimulus
A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned
stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the
unconditioned stimulus
•CR: Conditioned Response
A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral
stimulus.
Pavlov’s Experiment
Classical Conditioning: Pavlov
• Unlearned / Reflexive
▫ UCS – Meat powder
▫ UCR – Dog salivates
• Learned
▫ CS – Sound of Pavlov’s bell
▫ CR – Dog salivates
UCS==== UCR
N
+
UCS======
UCR
Repeated pairings. . .
CS=== CR
SO. . . Who gives the shots? WHY?
Classical Conditioning Terminology
• Contiguity
▫ NS MUST be
presented before UCS
▫ NS MUST be
presented no more
than .5 to 1 second
before the UCS
Classical Conditioning Terminology
• Generalization: A CR occurs to any stimulus that
is similar to the original CS.
• Discrimination: A CR only occurs to a certain
stimuli even if similar to the original CS
Does
=
?
•Laws of Learning
Acquisition – response is
learned
(conditioned stimulus and
unconditioned stimulus
presented together)
Strength of Conditioned
Response (CR)
STRONG
WEAK
Training
CS alone
TIME
Pause
Spontaneous recovery
•Laws of Learning
Extinction (conditioned stimulus by itself)
a previously conditioned response decreases
in frequency and eventually disappears.
Acquisition
Strength of Conditioned
Response (CR)
STRONG
WEAK
Training
CS alone
TIME
Pause
Spontaneous recovery
•Laws of Learning
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
The reemergence of an
extinguished conditioned
response after a period of rest
and with no further
conditioning.
STRONG
Strength of Conditioned
Response (CR)
Spontaneous recovery of
conditioned response
WEAK
Extinction follows
(conditioned
stimulus alone)
Training
CS alone
TIME
Pause
Spontaneous recovery
Examples
• Every other day, Tabetha’s cat
gets wet cat food. Tabetha uses
the electric can opener to open
the can of food. The cat gets so
excited because she loves wet
cat food. One morning,
Tabetha’s mother is visiting
and she gets a can of tuna to
make tuna salad sandwiches.
As she opens the tuna can with
an electric can opener and the
cat is constantly rubbing on
her leg and purring and
meowing.
• UCS?
– Wet food
• UCR?
– Purring, meowing
• NS?
• Can opener
• CS?
– Can opener
• CR?
– Purring, meowing
Work on the sheet you picked up
when you came in
• Due at 2:00
Examples
• Elmer really likes to cook with
onions and he puts onions into
almost everything he makes. He
usually starts dinner everyday
around 5:00pm. As he is cutting
the onions, the grandfather
clock chimes five times because
it is 5:00pm. Elmer is also
crying because cutting the
onions makes his eyes water.
One evening he is at a friend’s
house because they are going
out to dinner later. He and his
friend are watching TV and the
clock chimes five times when it
is 5:00pm. Elmer’s eyes start to
water.
• UCS?
– Onions being cut
• UCR?
– Crying
• NS?
• Clock chimes
• CS?
– Clock chimes
• CR?
– Crying
• What did the sign on Pavlov’s
Laboratory door say?
Summary of Classical Conditioning
• Reflex
(involuntary)
Learning
▫ Stimulus /
Response
• Ivan Pavlov is
credited
• Is the basis of
learning, but not
ALL learning
Updating Pavlov
• Biological Processes
▫ John Garcia
 Innate predispositions for one-trial learning
 Food Poisoning
▫ Conditioned Taste Aversion
Classical Conditioning: Use in Humans
• Drug Habituation
▫ OD
• Advertising
Phobias and Fears
Little Albert and John B. Watson
Counterconditioning
Rescorla Wagner Model
• Thought processes (cognition) influence classical
conditioning.
Operant Conditioning
• Helps to explain voluntary behavior
• Consequences of behavior affect the future
probability of that behavior
• Contiguity – Time between behavior and
consequence
• Contingency – Is behavior regularly followed by
the consequence?
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
• Law of Effect
▫ Behaviors followed by
positive outcomes are
strengthened
▫ Negative outcomes weaken a
behavior
▫ S-R
• Influence on B.F. Skinner
▫ Consequences of behavior
B.F. Skinner
▫ Operant Conditioning
▫ Learning mechanisms the same for all species
▫ Behavior controlled by environmental forces
• School of Behaviorism
▫ Radical behaviorists
Skinner Box (Operant Chamber)
The Skinner box is a chamber
with a highly controlled
environment, used to study
operant conditioning processes
with laboratory animals.
Animals press levers in response
to stimuli in order to receive
“rewards”.
Modifications of an Operant Box
Operant Conditioning Terminology:
• Reinforcement = INCREASE in behavior
• Punishment = DECREASE in behavior
• Positive = something ADDED
• Negative = something taken AWAY
Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement - Increase in Behavior
• Positive Reinforcement
▫ Behavior followed by rewarding consequence
▫ Rewarding stimulus is “added”
• Negative Reinforcement
▫ Behavior followed by rewarding consequence
▫ Aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “removed”
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
• Punishment - Decrease in Behavior
• Positive Punishment
▫ Behavior followed by aversive consequence
▫ Aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “added”
• Negative Punishment (omission training)
▫ Behavior followed by aversive consequence
▫ Rewarding stimulus is “removed”
Operant Conditioning: Punishment
versus Negative Reinforcement
Punishment:
•Only temporarily changes behavior.
•Punishment is frequently ineffective when
▫ it is not delivered shortly after the undesired behavior
▫ the individual is able to leave the setting in which the
punishment is being given.
•Punishment can reduce the self-esteem of recipients unless they can
understand the reasons for it.
•Punishment does not convey any information about what an
alternative, more appropriate behavior might be.
Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement and Punishment:
• Positive and negative types
When stimulus is added, the result is . .
.
Reinforcement
• Reinforcement andPositive
Punishment:
• Positive and negative types
Intended Results
Increase in behavior
(reinforcement)
Example: Giving a raise for good
performance.
Results: INCREASE in response of good
performance.
• Reinforcement and Punishment:
• Positive and negative types
When stimulus is added, the result is . .
.
Positive Punishment
Intended Results
Decrease in behavior
(punishment)
Example: Yelling at a teenager for
stealing a bracelet.
Results: DECREASE in frequency of
response of stealing.
• Reinforcement and Punishment:
• Positive and negative types
When stimulus is removed, the result is
...
Negative Reinforcement
Intended Results
Increase in behavior
(reinforcement)
Example: Applying ointment to relieve itchy rash
leads to higher future likelihood of applying
ointment.
Results: INCREASE in response of using ointment
• Reinforcement and Punishment:
• Positive and negative types
When stimulus is removed, the result is
...
Punishment
• Reinforcement andNegative
Punishment:
• Positive and negative types
Intended Results
Decrease in behavior
(punishment)
Example: Teenager’s access to car restricted by
parents due to teenager’s breaking curfew.
Results: DECREASE in response of breaking curfew.
REMEMBER:
• Reinforcement = INCREASE in behavior
• Punishment = DECREASE in behavior
• Positive = something ADDED
• Negative = something taken AWAY
Items for this Week and Next:
• Classical Conditioning Quiz on Wednesday
• Operant Conditioning Quiz on Friday
• Test NEXT Tuesday
Operant Conditioning Issues in
Humans (NOT ANIMALS)
• Premack Principle
▫ High-probability activities can be used to reinforce
low probability activities.
▫ Examples
• Over justification Effect
▫ Rewards for something you already enjoy doing
can diminish the effect, causing you to NOT want
to do it
Other Fun Information
Operant Conditioning
• How do you condition an animal to do
something?
▫ Shaping – gradual training until they can do the
desired behavior
▫ Reinforcement
 Primary reinforcers – natural reinforcers (food)
 Secondary reinforcers – not required for survival
 Token reinforcers – exchangeable reinforcers ($$)
•Schedules of Reinforcement: Different
Patterns Of Frequency and Timing Of
Reinforcement Following Desired Behavior
•Continuous Reinforcement Schedule:
▫ Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.
Prior experience has taught us that a candy
machine delivers reinforcement (candy) every
time we put in the appropriate amount of
money.
If the candy machine were broken, it would not
take very long before we stopped depositing
coins.
•Schedules of Reinforcement: Different Patterns Of
Frequency and Timing Of Reinforcement Following
Desired Behavior
•Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule:
▫ Reinforcing a behavior some but not all of the
time.
Prior experience with a slot machine has taught us
that after putting in our cash, most of the time we
will not receive anything in return. At the same time,
we know that we will occasionally win something.
In comparison with the candy machine—If the slot
machine were broken, we would drop in money for a
considerably longer time, even though there would be
no payoff.
• Fixed – occurs a set amount of times
• Variable – occur at random
• Ratio – items
• Interval - time
Cumulative frequency of responses
• Partial Reinforcement Schedules:
Fixed-Ratio
Schedule:
A schedule by which
reinforcement is given
only after a specific
number of responses
are made.
There are short
pauses after
each response.
Typical Outcome:
Short pauses occur
after each response.
Because the more
responses, the more
reinforcement, fixedTime
ratio schedules
Used in the workplace: Every X calls made you produce a high rate of
responding.
receive a break
Cumulative frequency of responses
• Partial Reinforcement Schedules:
Responding occurs
at a high, steady
rate.
A schedule by which
reinforcement occurs
after a varying number
of responses rather
than after a fixed
number.
Typical Outcome:
Responding occurs at a
high rate.
Time
Slot machines
Variable-Ratio
Schedule:
• Partial Reinforcement Schedules:
Cumulative frequency of responses
Fixed-Interval
Schedule:
There are typically long
pauses after each
response.
A schedule that provides
reinforcement for a
response only if a fixed
time period has elapsed,
making overall rates of
response relatively low.
Typical Outcome:
Produces lower rates of
responding, especially
just after reinforcement
has been presented. (The
organism learns that a
Time
specified time period
must elapse between
After winning a prize you have to wait X number reinforcements.)
of days before trying again
Cumulative frequency of responses
• Partial Reinforcement Schedules:
Variable-Interval
Schedule:
A schedule by which the
time between
reinforcements varies
around some average
rather than being fixed.
Typical Outcome:
Responding occurs
at a steady rate.
Time
Reward in the classroom, Seatbelt use in Illinois
Life in general
Produces a fairly steady
stream of responses.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed and Variable
produce the best
responding:
Rate of response
depends on frequency of
reward and whether time
is an influence
Workers paid for the #
of items produced or days
at work are less likely to
miss work
Note the “scallops” in the
fixed interval:
Scheduled quizzes
versus pop quizzes
Schedule of
Response Rate
Reinforcement
Pattern of
Responses
Resistance to
Extinction
Fixed-ratio
Very high
Steady response for
low ratio, brief pause
after each for high
ratio
The higher the
ratio, the more
resistance
Variable-ratio
Highest response
rate
Constant response
pattern, no pause
Most resistance
Fixed-interval
Lowest response
rate
Long pause after
reinforcement
followed by gradual
acceleration
The longer the
interval, the
more resistance
Variable-interval
Moderate
Stable, uniform
response.
More resistance
than fixedinterval
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Generalization
▫ Stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response
▫ Responding occurs to similar stimuli
• Discrimination
▫ Stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be
reinforced
• Extinction and spontaneous recovery
▫ Behavior decreases when reinforcement stops
 Partial reinforcement extinction
 Superstitious behavior
▫ People AND animals
Why do reinforcers work?
• Biological explanation:
▫ Dopamine release
Skinner: the Final years
• Walden 2
• Operant conditioning can save the planet?
▫ His ultimate doom
B.F. Skinner’s legacy
• Theories of Learning
• Behaviorism
• Application of his principles to every day life
• Critiques of Skinner
Application continued
• Using Operant Conditioning on Yourself
▫
▫
▫
▫
State your goal
Monitor the behavior
Reinforce the desired behavior
Reduce the incentives
Comparison of Classical and Operant
Conditioning
Characteristics
Classical
Operant
Type of association
Between two stimuli
Between a response
and its consequence
State of subject
Passive
Active
Focus of attention
On what precedes
response
On what follows
response
Type of response
Involuntary /
Reflexive
Voluntary
Bodily response
Internal: emotional
and glandular
actions
External: muscular /
skeletal movement,
verbal
Range of responses
Relatively simple
Simple to highly
complex
Responses learned
Emotional reactions:
fears, likes, dislikes
Goal-oriented
responses
Observational learning
• Albert Bandura
• Complex situations are not necessarily classical
conditioning or operant conditioning
•Observational Learning: Learning through
watching others
In Bandura’s (1965) experiment, most children who watched an
aggressive model attack a Bobo doll later imitated that behavior
How does this relate to TV violence?
Prosocial Behavior?
Observational learning
•Tolman and Latent Learning: Learning That
Remains Hidden Until It Becomes Useful
Tolman’s Demonstration
+ Rats were allowed to roam
through a maze once a day
for seventeen days
Feldman 208a
+ One group was reinforced
with food every time they
reached the end of the maze
+ One group never received
reinforcement
+ The experimental group
received food reinforcement
on day 11
•Tolman and Latent Learning: Learning That
Remains Hidden Until It Becomes Useful
Tolman’s Results
+ Unrewarded control group
consistently made the most
errors
+ Rewarded control group made
far fewer errors
+ Experimental group showed
immediate reduction in errors
after they began receiving
reward. This suggests that the
experimental group had learned
the maze prior to the
introduction of reinforcement
•Kohler and Insight:
•Sudden Perceptions of Relationships Allowing For Rapid
Problem Solving
In the 1920’s, German psychologist
Wolfgang Kohler exposed
chimpanzees to novel learning
tasks and concluded that they
were able to learn by insight
Sultan the chimpanzee
seems to study the hanging
bananas that are out of
reach
•Kohler and Insight:
•Sudden Perceptions of Relationships Allowing For Rapid
Problem Solving
After looking around, Sultan
suddenly grabs some crates,
and stacks them . . .
•Kohler and Insight:
•Sudden Perceptions of Relationships Allowing For Rapid
Problem Solving
Sultan obtains his tasty reward.
Other factors in learning
• Biological constraints
▫ Taste Aversion
▫ Instinctive drift
Other Factors in Learning
• Active Learning
▫ Immediate reinforcement proves more successful
than delayed reinforcement
• Skill Learning
▫ Observation
▫ Practice
▫ Feedback
Psychological constraints
Learned Helplessness – after being repeatedly punished,
you have no desire to try even though the outcome might
change
Yoked Pairs of Dogs
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD)
• Typically includes learning difficulties
• Must meet several criteria:
▫ Inattention (must meet 6)
 Fails to pay attention to details, difficulty keeping attention on tasks or play, does not seem
to listen when directly spoken to, does not follow through with instructions, has difficulty
organizing tasks, avoids tasks requiring sustained mental effort, loses things necessary for
tasks, is easily distracted by other stimuli, is forgetful in daily activities
OR
▫ Hyperactivity – impulsivity (must meet 6)
 Hyperactivity: fidgets, leaves situations where staying in seat is expected, runs about or
moves excessively in inappropriate situations, finds it hard to play quietly, appears motor
driven, talks excessively
 Impulsivity: blurts out answers before questions are done, has difficulty waiting for their
turn, interrupts others
How prevalent is it?
• By definition, only 3 – 5 % of U.S. children
• 30 – 40% of children in the U.S. are referred for
hyperactivity
• 4/1 to 9/1 ratio for boys/girls
▫ Referrals and outward differences
• By culture:
▫ Some have equal rates (England)
▫ Some have lower rates (Spain, Italy, Australia)
▫ Some have higher rates (Ukraine)
Causes
• Genetic
▫ MZ twins have higher rates
▫ Biological parents have higher rates
• Environment
• Biological Differences
Treatment
• Stimulants
▫ Danger if wrongly prescribed
▫ Danger in general
 Drug holidays
 Long term effects?
• Behavior modification
Cartoon or Bumper Sticker
• Cartoon:
▫ You need to create a cartoon illustrating anything
out of the learning chapter
• Bumper Sticker:
▫ You need to create a bumper sticker with a catchy
slogan pertaining to anything out of the learning
chapter