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Learning • A man who carries a cat by the tail learns something that he can learn in no other way. —Mark Twain Names to Know: • • • • • • • • Albert Bandura John Garcia Ivan Pavlov Robert Rescorla B.F. Skinner Edward Thorndike Edward Tolman John Watson Learning • A man who carries a cat by the tail learns something that he can learn in no other way. —Mark Twain • A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience – Associative learning – Observational learning Associative Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning • • • • • • • • Ivan Pavlov Early 1900s Dogs Reflex Behaviors ▫ Stimulus / Response B.F. Skinner Mid 1900s Pigeons / Rats Voluntary Behaviors ▫ Reinforcement / Punishment •I am going to try to classically condition YUMMY! you to a salivation response to the word “PAVLOV.” •You will receive a small sample of sweetened lemonade mix. •As I read about Ivan Pavlov, each time I say the word “Pavlov,” dip a moistened finger tip in the lemonade mix and touch your tongue. Will you salivate? •At a point in the reading, I will ask you to stop the use of the lemonade powder with the word “Pavlov.” Ivan Pavlov • Russian physiologist ▫ Won the Nobel Prize in 1904 ▫ Was NOT a psychologist • Was experimenting with salivating dogs ▫ Reflexes Classical Conditioning Terminology •UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. •UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. •NS: Neutral Stimulus A stimulus that evokes no response normally •CS: Conditioned Stimulus A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus •CR: Conditioned Response A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus. Pavlov’s Experiment Classical Conditioning: Pavlov • Unlearned / Reflexive ▫ UCS – Meat powder ▫ UCR – Dog salivates • Learned ▫ CS – Sound of Pavlov’s bell ▫ CR – Dog salivates UCS==== UCR N + UCS====== UCR Repeated pairings. . . CS=== CR SO. . . Who gives the shots? WHY? Classical Conditioning Terminology • Contiguity ▫ NS MUST be presented before UCS ▫ NS MUST be presented no more than .5 to 1 second before the UCS Classical Conditioning Terminology • Generalization: A CR occurs to any stimulus that is similar to the original CS. • Discrimination: A CR only occurs to a certain stimuli even if similar to the original CS Does = ? •Laws of Learning Acquisition – response is learned (conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus presented together) Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) STRONG WEAK Training CS alone TIME Pause Spontaneous recovery •Laws of Learning Extinction (conditioned stimulus by itself) a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. Acquisition Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) STRONG WEAK Training CS alone TIME Pause Spontaneous recovery •Laws of Learning Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous Recovery The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. STRONG Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) Spontaneous recovery of conditioned response WEAK Extinction follows (conditioned stimulus alone) Training CS alone TIME Pause Spontaneous recovery Examples • Every other day, Tabetha’s cat gets wet cat food. Tabetha uses the electric can opener to open the can of food. The cat gets so excited because she loves wet cat food. One morning, Tabetha’s mother is visiting and she gets a can of tuna to make tuna salad sandwiches. As she opens the tuna can with an electric can opener and the cat is constantly rubbing on her leg and purring and meowing. • UCS? – Wet food • UCR? – Purring, meowing • NS? • Can opener • CS? – Can opener • CR? – Purring, meowing Work on the sheet you picked up when you came in • Due at 2:00 Examples • Elmer really likes to cook with onions and he puts onions into almost everything he makes. He usually starts dinner everyday around 5:00pm. As he is cutting the onions, the grandfather clock chimes five times because it is 5:00pm. Elmer is also crying because cutting the onions makes his eyes water. One evening he is at a friend’s house because they are going out to dinner later. He and his friend are watching TV and the clock chimes five times when it is 5:00pm. Elmer’s eyes start to water. • UCS? – Onions being cut • UCR? – Crying • NS? • Clock chimes • CS? – Clock chimes • CR? – Crying • What did the sign on Pavlov’s Laboratory door say? Summary of Classical Conditioning • Reflex (involuntary) Learning ▫ Stimulus / Response • Ivan Pavlov is credited • Is the basis of learning, but not ALL learning Updating Pavlov • Biological Processes ▫ John Garcia Innate predispositions for one-trial learning Food Poisoning ▫ Conditioned Taste Aversion Classical Conditioning: Use in Humans • Drug Habituation ▫ OD • Advertising Phobias and Fears Little Albert and John B. Watson Counterconditioning Rescorla Wagner Model • Thought processes (cognition) influence classical conditioning. Operant Conditioning • Helps to explain voluntary behavior • Consequences of behavior affect the future probability of that behavior • Contiguity – Time between behavior and consequence • Contingency – Is behavior regularly followed by the consequence? Thorndike’s Law of Effect • Law of Effect ▫ Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened ▫ Negative outcomes weaken a behavior ▫ S-R • Influence on B.F. Skinner ▫ Consequences of behavior B.F. Skinner ▫ Operant Conditioning ▫ Learning mechanisms the same for all species ▫ Behavior controlled by environmental forces • School of Behaviorism ▫ Radical behaviorists Skinner Box (Operant Chamber) The Skinner box is a chamber with a highly controlled environment, used to study operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals. Animals press levers in response to stimuli in order to receive “rewards”. Modifications of an Operant Box Operant Conditioning Terminology: • Reinforcement = INCREASE in behavior • Punishment = DECREASE in behavior • Positive = something ADDED • Negative = something taken AWAY Operant Conditioning • Reinforcement - Increase in Behavior • Positive Reinforcement ▫ Behavior followed by rewarding consequence ▫ Rewarding stimulus is “added” • Negative Reinforcement ▫ Behavior followed by rewarding consequence ▫ Aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “removed” Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning • Punishment - Decrease in Behavior • Positive Punishment ▫ Behavior followed by aversive consequence ▫ Aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “added” • Negative Punishment (omission training) ▫ Behavior followed by aversive consequence ▫ Rewarding stimulus is “removed” Operant Conditioning: Punishment versus Negative Reinforcement Punishment: •Only temporarily changes behavior. •Punishment is frequently ineffective when ▫ it is not delivered shortly after the undesired behavior ▫ the individual is able to leave the setting in which the punishment is being given. •Punishment can reduce the self-esteem of recipients unless they can understand the reasons for it. •Punishment does not convey any information about what an alternative, more appropriate behavior might be. Operant Conditioning • Reinforcement and Punishment: • Positive and negative types When stimulus is added, the result is . . . Reinforcement • Reinforcement andPositive Punishment: • Positive and negative types Intended Results Increase in behavior (reinforcement) Example: Giving a raise for good performance. Results: INCREASE in response of good performance. • Reinforcement and Punishment: • Positive and negative types When stimulus is added, the result is . . . Positive Punishment Intended Results Decrease in behavior (punishment) Example: Yelling at a teenager for stealing a bracelet. Results: DECREASE in frequency of response of stealing. • Reinforcement and Punishment: • Positive and negative types When stimulus is removed, the result is ... Negative Reinforcement Intended Results Increase in behavior (reinforcement) Example: Applying ointment to relieve itchy rash leads to higher future likelihood of applying ointment. Results: INCREASE in response of using ointment • Reinforcement and Punishment: • Positive and negative types When stimulus is removed, the result is ... Punishment • Reinforcement andNegative Punishment: • Positive and negative types Intended Results Decrease in behavior (punishment) Example: Teenager’s access to car restricted by parents due to teenager’s breaking curfew. Results: DECREASE in response of breaking curfew. REMEMBER: • Reinforcement = INCREASE in behavior • Punishment = DECREASE in behavior • Positive = something ADDED • Negative = something taken AWAY Items for this Week and Next: • Classical Conditioning Quiz on Wednesday • Operant Conditioning Quiz on Friday • Test NEXT Tuesday Operant Conditioning Issues in Humans (NOT ANIMALS) • Premack Principle ▫ High-probability activities can be used to reinforce low probability activities. ▫ Examples • Over justification Effect ▫ Rewards for something you already enjoy doing can diminish the effect, causing you to NOT want to do it Other Fun Information Operant Conditioning • How do you condition an animal to do something? ▫ Shaping – gradual training until they can do the desired behavior ▫ Reinforcement Primary reinforcers – natural reinforcers (food) Secondary reinforcers – not required for survival Token reinforcers – exchangeable reinforcers ($$) •Schedules of Reinforcement: Different Patterns Of Frequency and Timing Of Reinforcement Following Desired Behavior •Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: ▫ Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs. Prior experience has taught us that a candy machine delivers reinforcement (candy) every time we put in the appropriate amount of money. If the candy machine were broken, it would not take very long before we stopped depositing coins. •Schedules of Reinforcement: Different Patterns Of Frequency and Timing Of Reinforcement Following Desired Behavior •Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule: ▫ Reinforcing a behavior some but not all of the time. Prior experience with a slot machine has taught us that after putting in our cash, most of the time we will not receive anything in return. At the same time, we know that we will occasionally win something. In comparison with the candy machine—If the slot machine were broken, we would drop in money for a considerably longer time, even though there would be no payoff. • Fixed – occurs a set amount of times • Variable – occur at random • Ratio – items • Interval - time Cumulative frequency of responses • Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made. There are short pauses after each response. Typical Outcome: Short pauses occur after each response. Because the more responses, the more reinforcement, fixedTime ratio schedules Used in the workplace: Every X calls made you produce a high rate of responding. receive a break Cumulative frequency of responses • Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Responding occurs at a high, steady rate. A schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number. Typical Outcome: Responding occurs at a high rate. Time Slot machines Variable-Ratio Schedule: • Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Cumulative frequency of responses Fixed-Interval Schedule: There are typically long pauses after each response. A schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low. Typical Outcome: Produces lower rates of responding, especially just after reinforcement has been presented. (The organism learns that a Time specified time period must elapse between After winning a prize you have to wait X number reinforcements.) of days before trying again Cumulative frequency of responses • Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Variable-Interval Schedule: A schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed. Typical Outcome: Responding occurs at a steady rate. Time Reward in the classroom, Seatbelt use in Illinois Life in general Produces a fairly steady stream of responses. Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed and Variable produce the best responding: Rate of response depends on frequency of reward and whether time is an influence Workers paid for the # of items produced or days at work are less likely to miss work Note the “scallops” in the fixed interval: Scheduled quizzes versus pop quizzes Schedule of Response Rate Reinforcement Pattern of Responses Resistance to Extinction Fixed-ratio Very high Steady response for low ratio, brief pause after each for high ratio The higher the ratio, the more resistance Variable-ratio Highest response rate Constant response pattern, no pause Most resistance Fixed-interval Lowest response rate Long pause after reinforcement followed by gradual acceleration The longer the interval, the more resistance Variable-interval Moderate Stable, uniform response. More resistance than fixedinterval Schedules of Reinforcement • Generalization ▫ Stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response ▫ Responding occurs to similar stimuli • Discrimination ▫ Stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be reinforced • Extinction and spontaneous recovery ▫ Behavior decreases when reinforcement stops Partial reinforcement extinction Superstitious behavior ▫ People AND animals Why do reinforcers work? • Biological explanation: ▫ Dopamine release Skinner: the Final years • Walden 2 • Operant conditioning can save the planet? ▫ His ultimate doom B.F. Skinner’s legacy • Theories of Learning • Behaviorism • Application of his principles to every day life • Critiques of Skinner Application continued • Using Operant Conditioning on Yourself ▫ ▫ ▫ ▫ State your goal Monitor the behavior Reinforce the desired behavior Reduce the incentives Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning Characteristics Classical Operant Type of association Between two stimuli Between a response and its consequence State of subject Passive Active Focus of attention On what precedes response On what follows response Type of response Involuntary / Reflexive Voluntary Bodily response Internal: emotional and glandular actions External: muscular / skeletal movement, verbal Range of responses Relatively simple Simple to highly complex Responses learned Emotional reactions: fears, likes, dislikes Goal-oriented responses Observational learning • Albert Bandura • Complex situations are not necessarily classical conditioning or operant conditioning •Observational Learning: Learning through watching others In Bandura’s (1965) experiment, most children who watched an aggressive model attack a Bobo doll later imitated that behavior How does this relate to TV violence? Prosocial Behavior? Observational learning •Tolman and Latent Learning: Learning That Remains Hidden Until It Becomes Useful Tolman’s Demonstration + Rats were allowed to roam through a maze once a day for seventeen days Feldman 208a + One group was reinforced with food every time they reached the end of the maze + One group never received reinforcement + The experimental group received food reinforcement on day 11 •Tolman and Latent Learning: Learning That Remains Hidden Until It Becomes Useful Tolman’s Results + Unrewarded control group consistently made the most errors + Rewarded control group made far fewer errors + Experimental group showed immediate reduction in errors after they began receiving reward. This suggests that the experimental group had learned the maze prior to the introduction of reinforcement •Kohler and Insight: •Sudden Perceptions of Relationships Allowing For Rapid Problem Solving In the 1920’s, German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler exposed chimpanzees to novel learning tasks and concluded that they were able to learn by insight Sultan the chimpanzee seems to study the hanging bananas that are out of reach •Kohler and Insight: •Sudden Perceptions of Relationships Allowing For Rapid Problem Solving After looking around, Sultan suddenly grabs some crates, and stacks them . . . •Kohler and Insight: •Sudden Perceptions of Relationships Allowing For Rapid Problem Solving Sultan obtains his tasty reward. Other factors in learning • Biological constraints ▫ Taste Aversion ▫ Instinctive drift Other Factors in Learning • Active Learning ▫ Immediate reinforcement proves more successful than delayed reinforcement • Skill Learning ▫ Observation ▫ Practice ▫ Feedback Psychological constraints Learned Helplessness – after being repeatedly punished, you have no desire to try even though the outcome might change Yoked Pairs of Dogs Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) • Typically includes learning difficulties • Must meet several criteria: ▫ Inattention (must meet 6) Fails to pay attention to details, difficulty keeping attention on tasks or play, does not seem to listen when directly spoken to, does not follow through with instructions, has difficulty organizing tasks, avoids tasks requiring sustained mental effort, loses things necessary for tasks, is easily distracted by other stimuli, is forgetful in daily activities OR ▫ Hyperactivity – impulsivity (must meet 6) Hyperactivity: fidgets, leaves situations where staying in seat is expected, runs about or moves excessively in inappropriate situations, finds it hard to play quietly, appears motor driven, talks excessively Impulsivity: blurts out answers before questions are done, has difficulty waiting for their turn, interrupts others How prevalent is it? • By definition, only 3 – 5 % of U.S. children • 30 – 40% of children in the U.S. are referred for hyperactivity • 4/1 to 9/1 ratio for boys/girls ▫ Referrals and outward differences • By culture: ▫ Some have equal rates (England) ▫ Some have lower rates (Spain, Italy, Australia) ▫ Some have higher rates (Ukraine) Causes • Genetic ▫ MZ twins have higher rates ▫ Biological parents have higher rates • Environment • Biological Differences Treatment • Stimulants ▫ Danger if wrongly prescribed ▫ Danger in general Drug holidays Long term effects? • Behavior modification Cartoon or Bumper Sticker • Cartoon: ▫ You need to create a cartoon illustrating anything out of the learning chapter • Bumper Sticker: ▫ You need to create a bumper sticker with a catchy slogan pertaining to anything out of the learning chapter