Download Assessing Climate Risks to Low Carbon Urban Projects

Climate Risk Scoping Study:
Assessing Climate Risks to Low
Carbon Urban Projects
Sub-study of the Low Carbon Cities Project:
Establishment of a low carbon city and green
growth strategy for Greater Kuala Lumpur
1
Climate Risk Scoping Study: Assessing
Climate Risks To Low Carbon Urban Projects
Sub-study of the Low Carbon Cities Project:
Establishment of a low carbon city and green
growth strategy for Greater Kuala Lumpur
Authors:
Sarah Opitz-Stapleton
Maizura Ismail
Mathias Varming
Sayers and Partners
Study conducted for:
Carbon Trust, UK
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
February 2017
Acknowledgements:
This study was supported by a grant from the British Foreign and
Commonwealth Office.
Cover photo: Shutterstock, Patrick Foto ©2017
The views and opinions expressed in this report belong to the authors alone.
Executive Summary
Countries like Malaysia are experiencing rapid urbanisation. This growth affords both mitigation
and adaptation opportunities for the municipal authorities in the Greater Kuala Lumpur (Greater
KL) area if existing and new climate risks are recognised and incorporated into urban
development and planning. Urban areas, like the municipalities in Greater KL, are taking
important steps to reduce the extent of climate change through low carbon, energy efficient
initiatives. Some of these activities may include: installation of solar photovoltaics on municipal
buildings; expansion of urban green spaces; retrofitting building skins; and installing electric
vehicle infrastructure.
This sub-study investigates existing and potential climate risks to low carbon urban
development, particularly buildings, in Greater KL as part of a broader initiative. Carbon Trust is
working with the study municipalities of Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur (DBKL), Majlis
Perbandaran Ampang Jaya (MPAJ) and Majlis Bandaraya Petaling Jaya (MBPJ).
Climate risks to infrastructure result from the interaction of vulnerability, exposure and the type
and severity of weather and climate-related hazard. In the Greater KL region, buildings are
exposed to flash flooding, heat waves, haze and landslides. Building vulnerability is due to
policies – land use zoning, building codes, etc. - and their enforcement, coordination between
responsible agencies, construction quality, quality of building materials and maintenance.
The weather and climate-related hazards to which Greater KL infrastructure are exposed
include:
•
•
•
Heat waves and air pollution (haze) that are exacerbated by the urban heat island
effects of the conurbation. Air pollution corrodes building façades and exposed
structural elements. Excessive heat conditions increase building energy usage to keep
occupants comfortable. Climate change is likely to increase the frequency of heat
waves and lead to overall higher daytime and night time temperatures.
Wind loads can place significant deformation forces on multi-storied buildings, as well
as causing increased use of resources for building replacement costs. Thunderstorms
may become stronger due to climate change, and the wind loads placed on
infrastructure may increase.
The intensity (amount of rain falling in a particular period of time) of heavy rainstorms in
Greater KL has been increasing, and is likely to continue to increase due to climate
change. Heavy rain can permeate building materials and cause damage from the top
and sides, while flash floods triggered by the storms can erode foundations and
damage structures and internal assets.
Buildings are often the first line of defense protecting people and assets from hazard impacts.
Resilient infrastructure is robust and functional during a hazard event, is not ideally not located
within hazard prone areas or adopts more stringent building design standards if it must be, and
sustains minimal damage so that repairs are also minimal. The integration of multi-hazard
resilient design principles with green building principles in an combination design and building
framework and policies that mainstream climate change adaptation are important in realising
resilient, low carbon urban areas.
All three study municipalities include hazard prone areas such as steep slopes, increasing area
of impervious surfaces funnelling runoff into low-lying terrain, and areas adjacent to rivers – not
to mention undergoing rapid population growth and urban expansion. Some of the measures
that could build resilience to weather and climate-related hazards, such as building codes and
zoning regulations may be less effective if they are not regularly updated to incorporate the
latest climate change projections, as well as other changes including shifts to societal
structures, demography, environmental degradation, poverty and inequality. Policy tools for
urban and country planning should incorporate climate change mitigation, climate change
adaptation and disaster risk management considerations and good practice. Decision making
gaps between policy formulation at the national level and implementation at the local levels, as
well as knowledge gap between academia, decision makers and the public need to be closed
in order to allow for municipalities in Greater KL to prepare for climate change.
i
Acronyms
ACEM –
Associations of Consulting Engineers, Malaysia
ASHRAE –
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
BREEAM –
Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method
CCA –
climate change adaptation
CCM –
climate change mitigation
CEDMHA –
Center for Excellence in Disaster Management
COP –
Conference of the Parties
CORDEX –
Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment
CMIP5 –
Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5
CMP –
Conservation Management Plan
DBKL –
Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur
DID –
Department of Irrigation and Drainage
DRM –
disaster risk management
DSF –
double skin façade
EE –
energy efficiency
EPPs –
Entry Point Projects
EPU –
Economic Planning Unit
ESCP –
Erosion and Sediment Control Plan
ETP –
Economic Transformation Programme
EV –
electric vehicle
FEMA –
USA’s Federal Emergency Management Agency
GBI –
Green Building Index
GCM –
general circulation model
GHG –
greenhouse gas
Greater KL –
Greater Kuala Lumpur conurbation
GNI –
gross national income
GPI –
global positioning index
GtCO2 –
Gigatonnes Carbon Dioxide
INDC –
Intended Nationally Determined Contribution
IPCC –
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISMS –
Information Security Management System
JPBD –
Department of Town and Country Planning
KeTTHA –
Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water
KMNI –
Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut
KPI –
key performance indicator
KULSIS –
Kuala Lumpur Hazard and Risk Map Application System
LA –
Local Authority
LEDs –
light-emitting diodes
Low-E –
low emissivity
LP –
local plan
ii
MBPJ –
Majlis Bandaraya Petaling Jaya
MOSTE –
Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment
MPAJ –
Majlis Perbandaran Ampang Jaya
MPPJ –
Majlis Perbandaran Petaling Jaya
MSMA –
Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia
MTCO2 –
metric tonnes carbon dioxide
MW –
megawatt
NAHRIM –
National Hydraulic Research Institute
NAMA –
Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Activities
NADMA –
National Disaster Management Agency
NKEA –
National Key Economic Areas
NOx –
nitrogen oxides
NPP –
National Physical Plan
NRE –
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment photovoltaic
PAM –
Malaysian Institute of Architects
Perhilitan –
Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia
PV –
photovoltaic
RE –
renewable energy
RCM –
regional circulation model
RCP –
representative concentration pathway
RTPJ –
Petaling Jaya Local Plan
SEACLID –
Southeast Asia Regional Climate Downscaling
SEDA –
Sustainable Energy Development Authority
SMART –
Stormwater Management and Road Tunnel
SOPs –
standard operating procedures
SP –
structure plan
SPAD –
Land Public Transport Commission
SPM –
Summary for Policy Makers
SSP –
Selangor Structural Plan
UNDP-GEF –
United Nations Development Programme Global Environmental Finance
UNESCO –
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNFCCC –
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNISDR –
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
UHI –
urban heat island
WEF –
World Economic Forum
iii
Definitions
Report terms use the definitions from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Working Group II Summary for Policymakers (IPCC 2014: 3 and 5). These definitions, and
related figure showing the intersection of vulnerability, risk, exposure, hazards and impacts, are
repeated here.
Adaptation: The process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects. In human
systems, adaptation seeks to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities. In
some natural systems, human intervention may facilitate adjustment to expected climate and its
effects.
Climate change: Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be
identified (e.g, by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its
properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate
change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of
the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions, and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition
of the atmosphere or in land use. Note that the Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), in its Article 1, defines climate change as: ‘a change of climate which is attributed
directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and
which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.’ The
UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between climate change attributable to human activities
altering the atmospheric composition, and climate variability attributable to natural causes.
Exposure: The presence of people, livelihoods, species or ecosystems, environmental
functions, services, and resources, infrastructure, or economic, social, or cultural assets in
places and settings that could be adversely affected.
Hazard: The potential occurrence of a natural or human-induced physical event or trend or
physical impact that may cause loss of life, injury, or other health impacts, as well as damage
and loss to property, infrastructure, livelihoods, service provision, ecosystems, and
environmental resources. In this report, the term hazard usually refers to climate-related
physical events or trends or their physical impacts.
Impacts: Effects on natural and human systems. In this report, the term impacts is used primarily
to refer to the effects on natural and human systems of extreme weather and climate events
and of climate change. Impacts generally refer to effects on lives, livelihoods, health,
ecosystems, economies, societies, cultures, services, and infrastructure due to the interaction
of climate changes or hazardous climate events occurring within a specific time period and the
vulnerability of an exposed society or system. Impacts are also referred to as consequences
and outcomes. The impacts of climate change on geophysical systems, including floods,
droughts, and sea-level rise, are a subset of impacts called physical impacts.
Resilience: The capacity of social, economic, and environmental systems to cope with a
hazardous event or trend or disturbance, responding or reorganizing in ways that maintain their
essential function, identity, and structure, while also maintaining the capacity for adaptation,
learning, and transformation.
Risk: The potential for consequences where something of value is at stake and where the
outcome is uncertain, recognizing the diversity of values. Risk is often represented as
probability of occurrence of hazardous events or trends multiplied by the impacts if these
events or trends occur. Risk results from the interaction of vulnerability, exposure, and hazard
(see Figure 1). In this report, the term risk is used primarily to refer to the risks of climate-change
impacts.
iv
Figure 1: Risk of climate-related impacts results from the interaction of climate-related hazards (including
hazardous events and trends) with the vulnerability and exposure of human and nature systems.
Changes in both the climate system (left) and socioeconomic processes including adaptation and
mitigation (right) are drivers of hazards, exposure, and vulnerability.
Vulnerability: The propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected. Vulnerability
encompasses a variety of concepts and elements including sensitivity or susceptibility to harm
and lack of capacity to cope and adapt.
Transformation: A change in the fundamental attributes of natural and human systems. Within
this summary, transformation could reflect strengthened, altered, or aligned paradigms, goals,
or values towards promoting adaptation for sustainable development, including poverty
reduction.
Finally, it is important to clarify between ‘climate’ and ‘weather’ – related hazards. Certain types
of hazards that have a rapid onset and short duration (~days to a few weeks) are deemed
weather-related hazards and included heavy rainfall, severe storms and flash flooding.
Climate-related hazards are slow onset and persist for several weeks to months or even years
and can be the accumulation of multiple weather events; drought and sea level rise are
climate-related hazards (IPCC 2012).
v
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
i
Acronyms
ii
Definitions
iv
Introduction to the Climate Risk Scoping Assessment
1
Introduction to the Study Municipalities
Greater Kuala Lumpur
Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur - DBKL
Majlis Bandaraya Petaling Jaya – MBPJ
Majlis Perbandaran Ampang Jaya - MPAJ
3
3
4
4
5
Climate Change and Weather and Climate-Related Hazards
Current Weather and Climate-Related Hazards
Projected Changes to Weather and Climate-Related Hazards in Peninsular Malaysia
6
6
8
Overview of National-Level Malaysian Climate Change Policies
International Commitments
National Climate Change Policies
Green Building Index
From Mitigation to Adaptation
11
11
11
13
13
Urban Planning for Low Carbon Development and Climate Resilience
Spatial Planning Overview
Other relevant Master Plans and Programmes by National and State Agencies
Conservation Management Plan for the Gombak Quartz Ridge
Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia (MSMA) - DID
SMART Tunnel
DBKL Policies and Plans for Development and Resilience
MBPJ Policies and Plans for Development and Resilience
MPAJ Policies and Plans for Development and Resilience
16
16
17
18
19
19
21
22
24
Climate Risk Implications for Urban Green Building Efforts
Urban Heat Island and Heat Waves
Air Pollution and Haze
Wind Loads
Extreme Rainfall and Flooding
27
28
30
31
32
Recommendations
1. Climate Policy Integration and Coherence
Rationale for integration
Barriers to Integration
Approaches to address barriers and facilitate integration
2. Local Adaptation and Resilience Building Frameworks
3. Integrated Design Approaches Balancing Building Objectives
34
34
34
35
35
36
38
References
41
vi
Introduction to the Climate Risk Scoping Assessment
Climate change is altering the frequency and intensity of weather-related hazards such as
heavy rainfall and flooding, heat waves and drought, and secondary disasters like landslides or
smog. There is growing recognition of the importance of managing emissions from urban
infrastructure in order to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and contribute to overall
global mitigation efforts to stay within the 1.5° to 2°C limits negotiated through the Paris Climate
Treaty of 2015.
Recent studies estimated that global urban buildings emitted a mean of 6.8 GtCO2 in 2010 and
may contribute to 30% or more of future emissions (Creutzig et al 2016; Erickson and Tempest
2015). Buildings, roads and other infrastructure in cities have long lifetimes, sometimes
spanning 50 to 100 years of use. Urban infrastructure construction choices of today –
retrofitting existing buildings for energy efficiency, setting green building standards for new
infrastructure, encouraging diverse, efficient transportation options, or preserving green spaces
versus maintaining current urban development patterns – can either promote mitigation or
lock-in substantial emissions growth that will exceed negotiated temperature limits.
The failure of governments and businesses to enforce or enact effective measures to mitigate
and adapt to climate change was perceived as the most impactful risk for the years to come in
the World Economic Forum’s (WEF) 2016 Global Risks Perception Survey (Global
Competitiveness and Risk Team 2016). The survey also ranked climate change mitigation and
adaptation failure as the third most likely risk after large scale involuntary migration (ranked 1st)
and extreme weather events (2nd) and noted that such a failure is strongly connected to other
leading risks ranked most likely and impactful such as water crises, extreme weather events
and major natural catastrophes.
At the ground level, decision makers need to answer some crucial questions:
•
•
•
•
How will climate change impact the society, the environment, the economy and
infrastructure?
What can be done not only to mitigate climate change but also to reduce climate risks
and impacts through adaptation?
How should limited resources be prioritised for both mitigation and adaptation?
How effective are the current policies and practices? What is needed to ensure the
effectiveness, robustness, flexibility and overall resilience of measures taken?
Countries like Malaysia are experiencing rapid urbanisation and economic expansion. Urban
areas, like the municipalities in the Greater Kuala Lumpur region, are taking important steps to
reduce the extent of climate change through low carbon, energy efficient initiatives. Some of
these activities may include: installation of solar photovoltaics on municipal buildings;
expansion of urban green spaces; retrofitting building skins; and installing electric vehicle
infrastructure. This growth affords both mitigation and adaptation opportunities for the
municipal authorities in the Greater KL area if existing and new climate risks are recognised
and incorporated into urban development and planning.
While transitioning to low carbon, energy efficient cities is absolutely necessary, it is also quite
important to consider the climate risks to the intended activities. For example, heat waves,
heavy rainfall and potentially higher wind loads may cause more damage to some municipal
solar photovoltaic (PV) configurations and building skins than others. Heat waves can place
significant burden on city electricity grids through increased energy demand and temperatures
exceeding equipment operating thresholds. Solar PV micro-grids can simultaneously improve
overall grid resilience or be at risk of malfunction during heat waves and flooding; micro-grid
layout and siting are important considerations. If drought, heat waves and heavy rainfall
become more prevalent throughout Greater KL, the trees and shrubs planted today to reduce
air pollution, cool the cities and reduce flooding impacts might not actually survive and deliver
the intended benefits. Promoting low carbon, green urban development practices and building
standards that mainstream climate change adaptation today affords opportunities for reducing
current and future climate risks.
1
This sub-study investigates existing and potential climate risks to low carbon urban
development, particularly buildings, in Greater KL as part of a broader initiative. Carbon Trust is
working with the study municipalities of Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur (DBKL), Majlis
Perbandaran Ampang Jaya (MPAJ) and Majlis Bandaraya Petaling Jaya (MBPJ) - within the
Greater Kuala Lumpur metropolitan region - to develop an infrastructure (buildings) energy
inventory and a roadmap for expanding existing initiatives to demonstrate the carbon
reductions possible through improved energy efficiency. The work is being undertaken with
the intent of aligning the low carbon city and green growth plans that might be developed
through the project with other relevant decision and policy priorities.
This sub-study is a high-level study of climate risks to urban low carbon development efforts,
particularly green buildings and urban green spaces, in Greater KL and involves:
1.
Identification of current weather and climate-related hazards to which urban buildings
are exposed and broadly projecting shifts in those hazards due to climate change;
2. Examination of current policies related to: urban development master plans; policies
and actions related to disaster risk management and climate resilience; and, priorities
for future socio-economic development that will influence urbanisation rates; and
3. Discussion of potential implications of these factors for creating climate risks for urban
low carbon development, particularly buildings in DBKL, MPAJ and MBPJ.
The information presented in this study is derived from the stakeholder consultations with
representatives from various municipal departments in DBKL, MPAJ and MBPJ, and from a
literature review. The Annex contains an overview of study methodology.
2
Introduction to the Study Municipalities
Greater Kuala Lumpur
The Greater Kuala Lumpur/Klang Valley (Greater KL) area contains the national capital, DBKL,
and is the largest conurbation within Malaysia. The urban area is situated within a valley
bordered by the Titiwangsa Mountains on the east with hilly regions to its north and south, on
the west central coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The Gombak and Klang rivers flow through the
urban agglomeration. Topography, climate, the two rivers and their numerous tributaries shape
the hazards to which urban infrastructure and residents are exposed, as explored later in the
report.
The Greater KL region is comprised of a cluster of 10 municipalities within and around the Kuala
Lumpur Metropolitan area, representing the nation’s key financial and economic growth centre.
Greater KL includes the city of Kuala Lumpur and nine other municipalities, namely Klang,
Kajang Subang Jaya, Petaling Jaya, Selayang, Shah Alam, Ampang Jaya, Putrajaya and Sepang
– see Figure 2. All three study municipalities – DBKL, MPAJ and MBPJ - for this Climate Risk
Scoping Study are located within the Greater KL region.
A study by the Economic Transformation Programme (ETP) found that Malaysia is lagging
behind other regional urban hubs in attracting foreign companies and workers compared to
neighbouring urban hubs like Beijing, Singapore and Shanghai (Inside Malaysia 2012). The
study recommended developing urban centres with world-class connectivity, urbanisation and
liveability to enhance Malaysia’s competitiveness. Towards this end, the ETP established the
Greater KL conurbation as one of 12 National Key Economic Areas (NKEA) aimed at driving
Malaysia towards high-income status and global competitiveness, as announced in the 10th
Malaysia Plan (2011-2015) (Pemandu 2011 and nd).
Figure 2: Greater KL urban area within Peninsular Malaysia and location of partnering municipalities
DBKL, MPAJ and MBPJ (Department of Statistics 2013).
3
Since the NKEA’s establishment in 2010, the overall population of the Greater KL
agglomeration has grown to ~7 million in 2013 and is expected to reach 10 million by 2020 as a
result of expanding economic activities (Pemandu 2014). Greater KL’s economy currently
accounts for about 37% of national gross domestic product and contributes about RM263
billion to the gross national income (GNI). Private sector involvement and investment is
expected to total 72% of Greater KL’s contribution to GNI and create over 300,000 jobs by
2020. These socio-economic policy priorities contribute to Greater KL’s status as one of the
fastest growing urban areas in Southeast Asia – and mark a concentration of people,
businesses, infrastructure and assets in a weather and climate-related hazards prone area.
Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur - DBKL
Kuala Lumpur, which translates to ‘muddy estuary’ for its location at the confluence of Gombak
River and Klang River, was founded in 1857 by a member of the Selangor royal family, Raja
Abdullah. Together with Raja Jumaat of Lukut and 87 Chinese workers, he came to explore the
district in search of tin ore. After travelling up the Klang River to the confluence with the
Gombak River, the team made their way through deep jungle and found tin near Ampang. That
moment marked the beginning of KL's development. After the arrival of Yap Ah Loy in the
1860s, development progressed at a faster pace. In March 1880, the British moved their seat of
administration to Kuala Lumpur. With this, the British took charge of the running and expansion
of the town and continued its development. Over the years, the area has grown from a tin
miner's camp into a major commercial centre and a Southeast Asian near-megacity (Kuala
Lumpur Tourism Bureau nd).
Since 1961, Kuala Lumpur has been governed by a single corporate entity that was then known
as the office of the Federal Capital Commissioner; it was upgraded to the Mayor of KL when the
area was officially conferred the status of a city on the 1st February 1972. On 1 February 1974,
Kuala Lumpur became the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur and ceased to be the capital of
Selangor State when it was ceded by the sultan of Selangor. The current governing body of
Kuala Lumpur is Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur (DBKL 2017). Kuala Lumpur covers an area of
243 km2 and a 2015 estimated population of 1.7 million (Department of Statistics 2017).
Majlis Bandaraya Petaling Jaya – MBPJ
In the early 1950s, Kuala
Lumpur
experienced
significant congestion as a
result of rapid population
growth and squatters on the
outskirts.
To
overcome
these issues, the Selangor
State Government created a
new settlement known as
Petaling Jaya in an area
known as ‘Effingham Estate’,
a
1,200-acre
rubber
plantation in Jalan Klang
Lama. The party entrusted
to
govern
the
new
settlement consisted of the
District Officer of Kuala
Lumpur and the Petaling
Jaya Board, before being
taken over by a statutory
body – the Petaling Jaya
Authority - at the end of
1954.
Figure 3: Petaling Jaya as a city aims to be an international
destination for livability through a rich blend of history, best features
of built and natural environment, opportunities and activities.
Source: MBPJ website.
Petaling Jaya made history on 1 January 1964, when the Selangor State gazetted a Township
Board with financial autonomy to govern the city. On 1 January 1977, Petaling Jaya Town
4
Authority was upgraded to Petaling Jaya Municipal Council (MPPJ), pursuant to the Local
Government Act of 1976. Later, on 20 June 2006, the Petaling Jaya Municipal Council was
upgraded to the Petaling Jaya City Council. Currently, the administrative area of MBPJ covers
97.2 km2 of rapidly growing urban and suburban areas. As of the 2010 Census, Petaling Jaya
had a total population of 613,977 people and approximately 188,296 property units (Dept of
Statistics 2013).
Majlis Perbandaran Ampang Jaya - MPAJ
The early days of areas surrounding the present Ampang Jaya were closely related to the
founding of Kuala Lumpur. The name 'Ampang', which is a corruption of the word ‘empang’ or
dam, originated from the construction of a dam to route water from Bukit Belacan to the town
area of Ampang by Chinese miners for tin mining. The native Malay residents in the Ampang
area were Bugis descendants from Sumatera.
The Local Authority Majlis Perbandaran Ampang Jaya (MPAJ) was formed on 1st July 1992.
Census data from 2010 noted that the population of Ampang Jaya was estimated to be 468,961
in an area of 143.5 km2, with the number properties estimated at 140,989 units (Dept of
Statistics 2013). More than 50% of the area under the administration of MPAJ is hilly, forested
area (MPAJ 2017a). The steep topography of MPAJ contributes to slope failures and landslide
risk, often triggered during heavy rain and flooding events.
Figure 4: View from Bukit Tabur limestone ridge near Taman Melawati. More
than 50% of Ampang Jaya is forested area. Source: Tourism Selangor
website.
5
Climate Change and Weather and Climate-Related Hazards
Climate change is altering the frequency, intensity and duration of extreme weather and
climate-related hazards like heavy rainfall, heat waves and flooding (IPCC 2012). At the same
time, cities throughout Asia are rapidly expanding, shifting the landscapes in which the cities
are built and creating new opportunities and climate risks for residents, businesses and urban
infrastructure (Friend et al 2014; Du et al 2016). Cities’ locations are critical in their exposure to
climate-related hazards, with many cities in Asia – like Greater KL – located in floodplains or
coastal areas. Land use change and the way urban infrastructure is constructed, including
buildings, contribute to the overall vulnerability and propensity of the infrastructure to suffer
damage during weather and climate-related hazards.
Current Weather and Climate-Related Hazards
There is considerable variability in rainfall intensity, duration and frequency on seasonal, yearly
and multi-decadal timeframes for Malaysia. Different parts of Peninsular Malaysia experience
different rainfall patterns (Suhaila et al 2010).
The Greater KL area is located in west-central Peninsular Malaysia and surrounded by Selangor
State. It has a tropical monsoon climate. The heaviest rainfall for this part of Malaysia occurs
during the transition periods between the northeast (~November to February) and southwest
monsoons (~May to August) - see Figure 5 (Syafrina et al 2015; Chow et al 2016). Extreme
rainfall amounts in a few hours (due to thunderstorms) or heavy rainfall over consecutive days
can trigger flash floods and landslides within the Greater KL region. Extreme rainfall due to
thunderstorms is more likely to occur in the inter-monsoon periods, while multiple consecutive
days of heavy rains are more likely during the northeast monsoon (November to February).
Between the period 1983-2012, daily rainfall exceeding the 95th per centile has experienced a
increasing trend in the Klang Valley during the northeast monsoon and 1st inter-monsoon period
(~March to April), though the number of wet spells in which it rains 5 or more consecutive days
decreased during the 2nd inter-monsoon (San et al 2015). Other measurements of extreme
rainfall at subdaily timescales indicate significant increasing trends in hourly and 5-hour rainfall
intensities during the northeast monsoon and both inter-monsoon periods between 1975-2010
around the Greater KL area (Syafrina et al 2015).
Since its independence in 1957, Malaysia has been undergoing rapid development that has
resulted in population shift and land use changes from rural to urban. Rapid urbanisation and
industrialisation have impacted groundwater quality and infiltration rates, surface water and
river flows, as well as accelerating the transport of pollutants and sediment from urban areas
(Zakaria et al 2004). Increased sedimentation can lead to raising of the river bed in some
reaches, expanding the floodplain and contributing to overtopping of banks during heavy
rainfall events.
Kuala Lumpur was built along the floodplains of the Klang River and has been subjected to
flooding since its early days. Flooding is arguably the most frequent and severe disaster
experienced by annually, with significant flood events causing thousands of deaths, injuries
and losses in 2003, 2010, 2011, 2013 and 2016 (Islam et al 2016; Guha-Sapir et al 2017). In 2015
alone, flash and riverine flooding is estimated to have affected nearly 28 million people, leaving
78,903 homeless and costing nearly RM 67.5billion in damages (Guha-Sapir et al 2017).
There is not a large variation in Greater KL temperatures, with daily maximum temperatures
averaging around 32°C and daily minimums around 22°C. However, heat waves occur and
infrastructure development and land use conversion contributes to Greater KL’s urban heat
island effects and pollution (haze) issues. The overall number of warm days and nights has
increased significantly for Malaysia over the period 1955-2007 (Choi et al 2009), with stations
near the Greater KL region also demonstrating increasing trends in extremely hot days (Salleh
et al 2015).
6
Figure 5: Kuala Lumpur climate normals (from the Shah Alam Airport station): Rainfall: ~1943-2010 and
Temperature: 1961-2012. The top temperature line is the mean maximum daily temperature of a month,
the bottom line is the mean minimum temperature of a month and the shaded area in between is the
average diurnal temperature range. Data compiled from: WMO 2016; Climate-Data.org 2016; DID 2011
During consultations with representatives from different departments within each LA, the
following weather and climate-related hazards were identified as having the most impact on
people, infrastructure assets and businesses.
Table 1: Key climate hazards as identified by the three study municipalities during consultation interviews.
Current Weather and Climate-Related Hazards
DBKL
• Flash flooding
• Haze and air pollution
• Falling trees during heavy
storms
• Urban heat
MBPJ
MPAJ
• Heavy rainfall
• Flash flooding
• River siltation from run-off
into the Penchala,
Damansara and Klang rivers,
potentially increasing floodprone area
• Landslides triggered during
or after heavy rainfall events
• Flash flooding
All three of the study municipalities - Kuala Lumpur, Petaling Jaya and Ampang Jaya - are
susceptible to flash flooding, which is a flooding event that rises and falls rapidly with little or no
advance warning in an urban setting - usually as a result of intense local rainfall over a relatively
small area lasting less than 1 hour. Flash flooding in urban areas is exacerbated by improper
waste management, construction and loss of impervious surfaces - these lead to disruption of
drainage functions and soil infiltration of rainwater and compound flood depths and velocities.
Ampang Jaya became synonymous with landslides and slope failure following a number of
fatal high profile incidents causing deaths and property damages. Events occurred in locations
with steep slopes that had been destabilised after improper construction and building siting,
with heavy rainstorms often triggering or contributing to the events. The fatal and damaging
landslide and slope failure events in Ampang Jaya are as in Table 2 (MPAJ 2016a). There have
been no major landslide events resulting in deaths since 2009 due to policies and actions
taken, such as the establishment of a multi-agency taskforce for slope management and a
specialised slope management unit under MPAJ (MPAJ 2016).
Aside from heavy rainfall and its possible secondary hazards such as flooding, falling trees,
landslides and mud/debris flow, DBKL also identified urban heat island (UHI) impacts as one of
the main weather-related hazards affecting the municipality (consultation with DBKL 2016). A
study done on UHI in Kuala Lumpur found that UHI intensity is caused and further exacerbated
by urbanization and human activity, and elevates urban core temperatures up to 7ºC more than
surrounding areas (Elsayed 2012).
7
Table 2: Landslide disasters in MPAJ (MPAJ 2016a)
Year
Dec 1993
May 1999
Oct 2000
Feb 2000
Nov 2002
May 2006
Apr 2008
Dec 2008
Sep 2009
Location
Highland Towers Condominium
Antheneum Tower Condominium, Bukit Antarabangsa
Wangsa 1, Bukit Antarabangsa
Kampung Sri Damai, Taman Kencana, Ampang.
Taman Hillview, Ukay Heights
Kampung Pasir, Hulu Klang
Kondominium Wangsa Height, Bukit Antarabangsa
Taman Bukit Mewah, Bukit Antarabangsa
Wangsa Heights, Bukit Antarabangsa
Death toll
48
1
8
4
5
-
Projected Changes to Weather and Climate-Related Hazards in Peninsular Malaysia
General circulation models (GCMs) project how climate might change across the entire globe,
using model resolutions of ~100 to 300km. Peninsular Malaysia’s high natural variability and
multiple rainfall regimes within a relatively small geographic area makes it difficult for coarse
resolution GCMs to project the range of how much annual, seasonal, and heavy rainfall might
change in the future under different emissions scenarios. Higher resolution climate projections
specific to Malaysia are needed to improve upon the earlier projections done by the Malaysia
Meteorological Department in 2009. Efforts are underway to downscale – produce higher
resolution at scales of 25km or less – climate projections for Malaysia under the Southeast Asia
Downscaling (SEACLID)/ Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX).
Even though there are currently fewer higher-resolution efforts for Malaysia, there are a
number of efforts for surrounding areas – such as India, Thailand and from other CORDEX
initiatives – that provide useful information about the potential shifts in extreme rainfall events
for South and Southeast Asia (Chaturvedi et al 2012; Limsakul et al 2009; Pour et al 2014;
Huang et al 2015; Tangang et al 2012). Trend analysis of precipitation extremes over India and
Malaysia already indicates the intensity of heavy rainfall events has been increasing (Dash et al
2009; Chow et al 2016; Syafrina et al 2015; Suhaila et al 2010). As the atmosphere warms,
atmospheric moisture content increases and is expected to continue exacerbating the intensity
and frequency of some extreme rainfall events (IPCC 2012; Westra et al 2014). Overall potential
changes in Malaysian temperatures and rainfall are highlighted on the next page and derived
from the literature just cited.
Table 3: Some sources of climate change projection data for Malaysia
Climate Projection Data for Malaysia
The KMNI Climate Change Atlas - This tool allows visual comparison of various climate variables
for different time periods and representative concentration pathways (RCPs – the latest ‘emission’
scenarios used in climate models) with the past. It displays changes projected by multiple Coupled
Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) models – models whose results were used to
inform the IPCC Fifth Assessment.
The Malaysian Meteorological Department’s 2009 study: Climate Change Scenarios for Malaysia
2001-2009. Projections within this report are based on a limited number of climate models and
use only one emission scenario from the IPCC Fourth Assessment (2007) era.
Journal articles, such as those listed in the text, describing observed trends and/or climate change
projections for rainfall or temperature for Malaysia.
8
Climate Change Shifts in Extreme Weather Hazards for Malaysia
Heavy Rainfall Events (see Figure 6)
• 1-hour rainfall intensities (amount of rainfall in an hour) have been increasing since
the 1970s, particularly in west peninsular Malaysia during the inter-monsoon periods.
Other extreme rain events (namely 5-hour and consecutive days of heavy rain) have
also increased. However…
• The total number of rainy days decreased on during the monsoon periods between
1975-2004 for western peninsular Malaysia. This may be partially due to natural
variability and partially to climate change.
• The intensity of extreme rainfall events is likely to increase in the future, exacerbating
flooding and landslide hazard occurrence.
Annual Maximum Temperatures
• Likely to increase ~1 to 2.5°C over Peninsular Malaysia over the period 2041-2060
when compared with the period 1986-2005.
• Likely to increase 1 to 4°C by 2081-2100 when compared with 1986-2005.
• The number of heat waves (total number of days in which maximum temperatures
exceed the 90th per centile temperature) is likely to increase significantly – see
Figure 7.
There are limitations to climate projections, some discussed here and others in the Annex:
• Different models will project different magnitudes of change for various climate variables.
• Localised temperature increases, urban heat islands impacts and heat waves may be
greater than what is projected at the large resolution scales of the CMIP5 models.
• Models have a hard time simulating precipitation over Southeast Asia, including Malaysia,
because a lot of the rainfall is due to thunderstorms. There is no clear trend in how annual
precipitation totals might change in the future – the GCMs are currently not in agreement
and the projected changes are within the amount of historical variability. However, it is not
at the annual timescale that precipitation amounts matter. Flooding and other heavy
rainfall-related hazards are often due to intense, localised storms lasting only a few hours
to days, which are not easily captured at the spatial resolution of the GCMs. This is
exemplified by the hatching in Figure 6. Research on potential shifts in the intensity and
frequency of extreme events remains limited for Malaysia, but is likely to improve with the
release of the CORDEX/SEACLID projections in later 2017 (Tangang et al 2012).
9
th
Figure 6: Projected median model changes in the daily rainfall that exceeds the 95 percentile within a
year across all CMIP5 GCMs: (A) shows the percent difference in P95tot over 2041-2060 compared to
1986-2005 according to RCP4.5; (B) shows for RCP8.5 over 2041-2060 compared to 1986-2005; (C)
shows RCP4.5 for 2081-2100 compared to 1986-2005; and (D) shows RCP8.5 for 2081-2100 compared
with 1986-2005. The hatching shows regions where the models’ projections are less than natural
variability and no robust statements about how the extreme rainfall might change in the future can be
made. Figures are from the KMNI Climate Explorer.
th
Figure 7: Projected per cent changes in number of days a year exceeding th 90 per centile maximum
temperature: (A) shows the per cent increase in heat wave days during 2041-2060 compared to 19862005 under RCP4.5; (B) shows for RCP8.5 over 2041-2060 compared to 1986-2005; (C) shows RCP4.5
for 2081-2100 compared to 1986-2005; and (D) shows RCP8.5 for 2081-2100 compared with 1986-2005.
Figures are from the KMNI Climate Explorer.
10
Overview of National-Level Malaysian Climate Change Policies
Malaysia is at risk of suffering numerous climate change-related impacts, ranging from sea level
rise impacting coastal communities to increased flooding during extreme rainfall events. The
country has begun taking steps to mitigate climate change through low carbon development
and emissions reduction policies, plans and actions, and is beginning to explore climate
change adaptation and resilience measures.
Some national-level policies, projects and actions are highlighted in this section that, taken
together, provide the overall guidance and a framing for national and urban actions around
increasing urban energy efficiency, low carbon development and addressing urban
infrastructure climate risks in Greater KL. Malaysia has undergone a policy evolution, with initial
efforts primarily focused on observing global emission reduction negotiations to playing a more
active role in mitigation and adaptation and trying to incorporate actions into overall economic
planning and disaster risk reduction activities.
International Commitments
Malaysia ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1994 as a
Non-Annex 1 Party and ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002. As a Non-Annex 1 party, Malaysia
did not have emission reduction obligations under the Kyoto Protocol.
In 2009, during the 15th Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC (COP15), Malaysia pledged to
reduce carbon emission intensity relative to GDP by 40% by 2020 when compared to 2005. It
thus joined 36 other countries in pledging voluntary mitigation action during the second
commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol (2013-2020 (Centre for Climate and Energy Solutions
2017; NRE 2010a). The year 2009 marked the country’s first international commitment to a GHG
emission reduction target. In 2015, Malaysia renewed its commitment to this target and added
an extended target of 45% carbon intensity reduction by the year 2030, still relative to 2005,
as its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) under the Paris Agreement (NRE
2015).
National Climate Change Policies
Malaysian national policy for action on climate change was initially focused only upon
mitigation. Beyond its pledge to retain at least 50% of its total area as forest cover, submitted at
the Rio Summit in 1992, mitigation policy began with the 2001 Five Fuel Policy (Grantham RICCE
2016). This policy was in support of the renewable energy targets laid out in the 8th Malaysia
Plan (2001-2005) and continued in the 9th Malaysia Plan (2006-2010). It was also an extension
of the previous Four-Fuel Policy - adding renewable energy, and specifically biomass power
from oil palm residues - to the existing basis of oil, coal, natural gas and hydropower (Haw et al
2006). The policy failed to reach its target of 500 MW grid connected renewables, and by 2010
only 42 MW of renewable energy had been added to the electricity supply despite approvals
having been issued to construct 283 MW of capacity (Maulud and Saidi 2012; Grantham RICCE
2016).
The newly established Ministry for Energy, Green Technology and Water (KeTTHa) began
introducing policies shortly after its inception. In response to the failure of previous policies to
deliver the desired renewables outcomes, KeTTHA introduced the National Renewable Energy
Policy and Action Plan. The renewable energy plan laid the foundation for the goal of
renewables contributing 13% of total electricity production and constituting 34% of the grid
connected capacity by 2050 (KeTTHA 2008).
The National Green Technology Policy was introduced in 2009 by KeTTHA. While not
specifically framed as a climate change policy, it has a significant focus on the reduction of
energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. Defined as products, equipment or systems that
minimise the degradation of the environment, has zero or low GHG emissions, is safe and
promotes healthy and improved environment, conserves resource use and promotes the use
of renewable resources, the policy aims to promote green technology as a driver for
environment, economy, energy independence and improved quality of life (KeTTHA 2009a).
11
In 2009, in tandem with the first international commitment to climate change mitigation action,
KeTTHA also launched its National Policy on Climate Change, which in conjunction with the
Renewable Energy Policy and Action Plan, aimed to increase the contribution of renewables to
5% of the total energy mix by 2015, or around 975 MW and widened the focus of renewable
energy integration beyond biomass (Grantham RICCE 2016). This national policy included a
feed-in tariff system, allowing for significant premiums for certain quotas of renewable energy
from solar, biomass, biogas, geothermal and hydro sources (SEDA 2017). The feed-in tariff is
expected to generate 113 MTCO2 in GHG reductions through the years 2012-2041, and has
been recognised within the UNFCCC Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Activities (NAMA)
registry (UNFCCC 2017).
Beyond the increased role of renewables in the energy mix, the National Policy on Climate
Change aims to:
• Mainstream climate change mitigation through wise management of resources and
enhanced environmental conservation resulting in strengthened economic
competitiveness and improved quality of life;
• Integrate responses into national policies, plans and programmes to strengthen the
resilience of development from arising and potential impacts of climate change; and
• Strengthening of institutional and implementation capacity to better harness opportunities
to reduce negative impacts of climate change.
To achieve these overall goals, the policy contains 10 “Strategic Thrusts” or policy goals (see
box on the next page), and 43 “Key Actions” that serve as recommendations for
implementation. The document, in its published form, does not indicate timelines or agencies in
charge of specific actions, making assessment of the status of the policy difficult (Koh et al
2016; NRE 2010). The policy mentions balancing climate change adaptation with mitigation, and
supporting climate-resilient development, but definitions, adaptation planning process
guidelines and actions for mainstreaming climate adaptation into policies are vague and no
clear responsibilities for particular ministries or agencies are demarcated.
The 10 “Strategic Thrusts” of the National Policy on Climate Change
• Facilitate the harmonisation of existing policies and institutions to address climate
change adaptation and mitigation in a balanced manner
• Institute measures to make development climate-resilient through low carbon economy
to enhance global competitiveness and attain environmentally sustainable socioeconomic growth
• Support climate-resilient development and investment including industrial development
in pursuit of sustainable socio-economic growth
• Adopt balanced adaptation and mitigation measures to strengthen environmental
conservation and promote sustainability of natural resources
• Consolidate the energy policy incorporating management practices that enhances
renewable energy (RE) and energy efficiency (EE)
• Institutionalise measures to integrate cross-cutting issues in policies, plans, programmes
and projects in order to increase resilience to climate change
• Support knowledge-based decision making through intensive climate-related research
and development and capacity building of human resources.
• Improve collaboration through efficient communication and coordination among all
stakeholders for effective implementation of climate change responses
• Increase awareness and community participation to promote behavioural responses to
climate change
• Strengthen involvement in international programmes on climate change based on the
principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities.
12
The country’s economic planning is now also beginning to account for mitigation actions, albeit
in discrete projects. The Economic Transformation Programme (ETP), launched on 25
September 2010, was formulated as part of Malaysia's National Transformation Programme. Its
goal is to elevate the country to developed-nation status by 2020. The ETP's targets are to be
achieved through the implementation of 12 NKEAs, representing economic sectors that
account for significant contributions to GNI (Pemandu 2017).
As the capital and commercial heart of the country, the Greater Kuala Lumpur/Klang Valley
NKEA represents a crucial component in the plan to transform Malaysia into a high-income
nation by 2020 through the implementation of nine Entry Point Projects (EPPs – Pemandu
2014). EPP6 under the Greater KL/KV NKEA is focused on Greening Greater Kuala Lumpur to
Ensure Residents Enjoy Sufficient Green Space. This project aims to increase greenery in the
city by planting 100,000 large-coverage trees and park establishment with the private sector.
Key performance indicators (KPIs) under this EPP include the number of trees planted, the
number of trees funded by the private sector, the number of trees tagged under Global
Positioning Index (GPI), and the number of trees maintained (Pemandu 2017b). As such, EPP6
contributes to Malaysia’s climate mitigation efforts and provides impetus to the local authorities
for urban green projects.
Green Building Index
The growing policy interest in mitigation action has helped to strengthen interest and initiatives
in green building and low carbon urban development. The Green Building Index, launched in
2009, is a rating and certification framework for buildings and townships, developed by the
Malaysian Institute of Architects (PAM) and The Association of Consulting Engineers, Malaysia
(ACEM - Tan 2009). The framework rates buildings on 6 key parameters: Energy Efficiency,
Indoor Environment Quality, Sustainable Site Planning and Management, Materials and
Resources, Water Efficiency, and Green Innovation (GBI 2016). There are 14 different categories
of developments, each with a separate rating tool, with different emphasis on each of the 6
parameters (GBI 2017a). Based on the final verified rating, a GBI-certified development can be
classified as ‘Certified’, ‘Silver’, ‘Gold’ or ‘Platinum’ (GBI 2017b).
While the Green Building Index is run entirely by PAM and ACEM, the Malaysian government,
through KeTTHA, supported the initiative through tax deductions for companies who have
certified their buildings. Those incentives expired in 2010 (KeTTHA 2009), although new
incentives are now offered through the Malaysian Investment Development Authority (Jemaat
2016). As of January 15th 2017, a total of 755 buildings and 19 townships have applied for
certification, of which 372 buildings and 8 townships have been certified (GBI 2017).
From Mitigation to Adaptation
Malaysia, similar to other countries (Lebel et al 2012), has until recently pursued policies and
programmes more oriented to climate change mitigation than those related to adaptation.
Development plans – from national spatial and disaster risk management plans to local action
plans – provide mechanisms for building urban resilience. Development control measures, like
land use and building regulations, influence the exposure of urban assets and infrastructure to
weather and climate-related hazards and actions to mitigate urban GHG emissions.
With the introduction of the 11th Malaysia Plan (2016-2020), there has been a significant shift in
focus from mitigation to recognising the need to incorporate adaptation and resilience into
socio-economic development, including energy policy. While there is still an ambitious target of
increasing the installed renewable energy capacity from 283 MW in 2014 to over 2,000 MW by
2020, both climate change adaptation and disaster risk management has been given
prominent positions in the plan (EPU 2015).
The 11th Malaysia Plan does acknowledge the need to continue to build upon the research and
harmonisation of policies to facilitate “the need for strengthening disaster risk management,
addressing gaps in how it is assessed and prepared for (p. 6-8)”…”and developing a national
adaptation plan, and strengthening resilience of infrastructure (p. 6-25)” in response to the
13
increased frequency and intensity of climate-related disasters. The plan calls for disaster and
climate risk management to be incorporated into development planning, and for building
resilient infrastructure. Malaysia is currently in the middle of the 11th planning period (2016-2020)
and moving toward mainstreaming climate resilience into development and planning.
Currently, Malaysia has taken the ‘no regrets’ approach to climate change adaptation, meaning
only interventions that are beneficial regardless of climate impacts - including demand-side
water management and rainwater harvesting - are currently being implemented (NRE 2010a).
However, several initiatives have been announced with the 11th Malaysia Plan. Under Focus
Area 6D, the Plan aims to enhance climate change adaptation through (EPU 2015; NRE 2015):
Developing a national climate change adaptation plan, currently being drafted by
KeTTHA;
Building resilient infrastructure with particular emphasis on energy and water distribution;
Strengthening natural buffers, to improve maintain biodiversity in forest, coastal and river
environments
Increasing the resilience of the agricultural sector to insure food supply security and
improve economic development;
Create public awareness on health impacts of climate change to reduce the impacts of
vector-borne diseases.
•
•
•
•
•
The National Policy on Climate Change (2009) provides the framework for mainstreaming and
balancing mitigation and adaptation measures into policy and practice. Two principles, and
related strategic thrusts, explicitly state goals for considering climate change in socio-economic
and environmental development plans:
•
•
P1: Development on a Sustainable Path – Integrate climate change responses into
national development plans to fulfil the country’s aspiration for sustainable
development.
o ST1-P1 – Facilitate the harmonisation of existing policies to address climate
change adaptation and mitigation in a balanced manner
P3: Coordinated Implementation – Incorporate climate change considerations of
development programmes at all levels.
o ST6-P3 – Institutionalise measures to integrate cross-cutting issues in policies,
plans, programmes and projects in order to increase resilience to climate
change.
o ST7-P3 – Support knowledge-based decision making through intensive climate
related research and development and capacity of human resources.
Various ministries, institutes and universities – such as the Ministry of Science, Technology and
the Environment (MOSTE), the Malaysian Meteorological Department or the National Hydraulic
Research Institute of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NAHRIM) – have and
are contributing research on climate change projections, data and climate impacts
assessments. However, many of the publicly available climate change risks and impacts
studies that could influence policy development, such as the Study of the Impact of Climate
Change on the Hydrologic Regime and Water Resources of Peninsular Malaysia, have not
been updated in the last 5 to 10 years. Given the rapid development and evolution in
knowledge about climate change and higher-resolution projections, as well as the fast rates of
urbanisation and land use change, such studies may be outdated and may not provide the
most robust impacts information for helping to shape urban mitigation and adaptation
measures.
Disaster risk management (DRM) has historically been the domain of the National Security
Council, with a mandate from National Security Council Directive 20: Policy and Mechanism on
National Disaster Relief and Management (CEDMHA 2016). DRM was reactive, with a principal
focus on disaster response and relief (Rahman 2012). In November 2015, this portfolio was
moved to a new specialised agency, the National Disaster Management Agency (NADMA),
along with the responsibility for coordination of disaster relief efforts (Maizura et al 2016).
14
NADMA is currently in the process of defining their role and extent of involvement with regards
to resilience planning, as well as their ability to undertake vulnerability assessments of priority
areas including urban flooding, energy water security, agriculture, infrastructure and health
(Maizura et al 2016).
At present, NADMA is still using the Directive 20 as reference for operations, supported by
seven volumes of existing Standards Operating Procedures (SOPs) that clarify and detail interagency roles and responsibilities. Each SOP addresses specific types of hazards and disasters,
namely flooding, industrial disaster, haze, petrochemical disaster, earthquake, tsunami and
drought (Maizura et al 2016). Two SOPs are currently being drafted for Humanitarian Assistance
Disaster Relief (HADR) and radiation disaster. NADMA is working to develop updated operating
procedures and move disaster management from a more reactive, response-driven orientation
to a more proactive, disaster resilience and planning orientation.
Understandably, given its history of focus on mitigation, adaptation efforts continue to lag but
their need is gaining in recognition among Malaysian policy makers. The national-level policies,
as elaborated earlier, provide the guidance and framework for policies and plans at the
municipal level and help shape the courses of action LAs take with regard to disaster risk
management, including climate change adaptation, within overall land use planning, mitigation
and low carbon economic development.
15
Urban Planning for Low Carbon Development and Climate Resilience
Urban planning, building efficiency and disaster risk reduction policies all influence the
vulnerability and exposure of Greater KL/KV infrastructure to weather and climate-related
hazards. How a city is constructed – from the siting of buildings, to preservation of green
spaces and flood-zone management – impact mitigation and adaptation choices over the short
to long term. Due to the long lifetime and cost of critical urban infrastructure, such as buildings,
roads and transportation networks, policies and activities put in place today will greatly
influence current and future climate risks. For example, improper siting (orientation and
spacing) of buildings can reduce the effectiveness of building energy efficiency activities,
efforts to reduce the urban heat island and exacerbate flood risks. Urban spatial planning,
building codes and disaster risk management plans all form the foundation upon which urban
climate resilience activities are built.
This section provides an overview of urban development planning and institutional
arrangements in KL that impact the low carbon efficiency and disaster risk reduction efforts of
municipal governments.
Spatial Planning Overview
Land use change and urban development greatly influence a city’s weather and climate-related
risks at multiple timescales. Development and spatial planning is carried out at all three tiers of
government - federal, state and local levels - in Peninsular Malaysia. The Town and Country
Planning Act 1976 (Act 172) and its amendments are the legal basis for the process of preparing
development plans in all of Peninsular Malaysia, except Kuala Lumpur. In Kuala Lumpur, the
Federal Territory (Planning) Act 1982 (Act 267) provides the legal framework for planning
practices in the Federal territory of Kuala Lumpur.
At the national level, development
planning is guided by the Five-Year
Malaysia Plans, the National
Physical Plan (NPP) and other
sectoral national policies passed by
the Cabinet, all of which address
the strategic issues of national
importance and provide the overall
framework for subsequent drawing
up of the other more detailed
Development Plans (JPBD 2010).
Similarly, development at the state
level is guided by Regional and
State Development Plans. Other
national sectoral policies are
formulated from time to time by the
respective state governments. Local
level physical planning is carried out
and regulated through the statutory
development plans, in the form of
Local Plans and Special Area Plans,
Figure 8: Malaysian national development planning
prepared by the local planning
framework (JPBD 2010).
authorities. These local-level plans
deal primarily with more detailed and site-specific land use allocations, spatial development of
each locality and community needs.
The NPP sets out the national long-term strategic spatial planning policies and measures
needed to implement them. The 2nd National Physical Plan outlining land use and spatial
development emphasises the need to consider climate change, although the language
remains broad. The plan prioritises energy efficient and ‘compact cities’, but there is not
mention of the need to continually review and update information about shifts in weather and
climate-related hazards’ location, intensity, frequency and duration, as well as changes in socio-
16
economic vulnerability and exposure due to development. The NPP mentions “development
Plans shall identify the relevant issues related to climate change and shall aim to achieve green
neighbourhoods”, but beyond recommending that coastal area setbacks should be periodically
reviewed to account for inundation due to sea level rise, none of the other measures for
infrastructure spatial development (e.g. flood prone areas) mention the need to account for
shifting climate risks.
The spatial planning vision, policies, measures and land allocations of the NPP are then
translated through the State Structure and Local Plans; and eventually through the Action Area
Plans and programmes. The main users of the NPP are the federal and state agencies
responsible for forward planning, development and financial allocations, as well as local
agencies responsible for development control and land administration. Malaysia is currently in
the second NPP period of 2015-2020. The NPP is reviewed every five years, in tandem with
the review of the Five-Year Development Plan.
The NPP is translated to the state level in the state’s Structure Plan (SP), which is a written
statement explaining the policy and general proposal of the state authority in respect to the
development and use of land in the state. The SPs include measures for improving physical
living environment; improvement of communications; traffic management; improvement of
socio-economic well-being and the promotion of economic growth; and, facilitating sustainable
development. Besides translating the NPP, the SP also provides a development framework for
the Local Plan (LP), as well as a document determining the state’s major land use and key
projects (JBPD nd).
The Selangor Structural Plan adopted the concept of ‘sustainable development’ as declared in
the Selangor State Sustainable Development and Local Agenda 21 Strategies, specifically to:
build a knowledge society; maintain ecosystem health; develop economic fundamentals;
ensuring the state's natural resources are used wisely; develop highly productive agricultural
activities; ensure comfortable housing; provide adequate infrastructure; develop human
resources; involvement of civil society in the planning and management; and integration of the
sustainable development principles (JPBD 2017).
At the local levels, the Local Plan (LP) is an official document interpreting the policies and
general proposals contained in the SP down to a more detailed physical development
proposal. LPs are specific for each identified Local Authority (LA) and demarcate the largescaled layout of whole district development equipped with a written statement to explain the
policies and details about the development (Federal Dept. of Town and Country Planning nd).
They are an interpretation of SP policies, a guide to physical development of the relevant
district and local planning authority through the land use proposal map, a set of guidelines for
development control, identification of key project area, and guidelines for its implementation.
For the three study municipalities of this project, local planning coordination is headed by one
key department with support from working committees and technical group committees, which
are in turn fed by all other departments. The coordinating department in DBKL is the City
Planning Department, while in MBPJ and MPAJ it is the Planning Department. All three LAs
involved in the scoping study use the services of external consultants to help them prepare
their LPs.
Other relevant Master Plans and Programmes by National and State Agencies
In addition to the study municipalities’ spatial and development plans, the LAs within the
Greater KL are also supported by a number of master plans and programmes coordinated and
implemented by external agencies. Some specific national-level policies and initiatives impact
disaster risk management and urban land use planning, and ultimately climate risk
management, within the Greater KL/KV region. Table 4 highlights some key national-level
policies and initiatives, with other important initiatives outlined after the table.
17
Table 4: Relevant development master plans and guidelines in Greater KL area by other agencies (SPAD
2013; Pemandu 2017a; Pemandu 2017b; Mohd Jafar 2010).
Plan
Key Agency
Overview
Public Land Transport
Master Plan
SPAD
An integrated 20-year plan to transform land
public transport to address the current
deterioration in land public transport, consistent
with the DBKL City Plan, the Structure and Local
Plans within Selangor and the Putrajaya Plans.
Economic
Transformation
Programme, NKEA
Greater KL/KV, EPP5:
The River of Life Project
Pemandu,
Ministry of
Federal
Territories, DID,
DBKL, MPAJ
Entry Point Project to transform specific areas
within Kuala Lumpur facing the Klang River into a
vibrant waterfront with high economic and
commercial value, divided into three key parts River Cleaning, River Beautification and Land
Development.
Economic
Transformation
Programme, NKEA
Greater KL/KV, EPP6:
Greening Greater Kuala
Lumpur
Pemandu,
Ministry of
Federal
territories, DBKL
Entry Point Project to increase greenery in the city
by planting 100,000 large-coverage trees, with the
support of private sector, through tree-planting
and parks establishment within KL.
Development and
Planning Guidelines for
Hilly and Highland Area
State of Selangor
State-wide guideline for development of hilly and
high land classified as Class III and Class IV slopes,
based on geological criteria. Includes general
guideline for slope areas that can be developed,
slope areas that need to be preserved, national
heritage areas, topographical conservation, and
slope areas that need to be conserved; as well as
specific guideline for planning control and buffer
zone.
Conservation Management Plan for the Gombak Quartz Ridge
The Klang Gates Quartz Ridge, said the be formed more than 100 million years ago, together
with the forested area behind the Ridge that connect to the Ulu Gombak Forest Reserve, was
gazetted in February 2010 as 'state park' under the National Forestry Act Selangor Enactment,
making it a part of Selangor State Park.
Towards preserving the unique geological monument resembling the back of a dragon, the
Selangor State Government, in conjunction with Selangor State Park Corporation, Selangor
State Forestry Department, Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia
(Perhilitan), Lembaga Urus Air Selangor, Selangor Town and Country Planning Department,
Selangor DID, Selangor Mineral and Geoscience Department, MPAJ, Majlis Perbandaran
Selayang, and Gombak Land and District Office, is drafting the Conservation Management Plan
for the Gombak Quartz Ridge. The CMP is expected to include more detailed management,
control and development in the ridge’s buffer zone core, as well as guidelines and
management structure to support and strengthen the state’s efforts towards achieving national
and global recognition as a UNESCO heritage site (Shalini 2015).
The plan prohibits urban development along the ridge and helps preserve the ecosystem
services – such as rich biodiversity habitat, carbon sequestration and hydrological regulation –
that contribute to overall Greater KL resilience.
18
Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia (MSMA) - DID
The Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) introduced an urban drainage manual in 2001
– the Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia (Manual Saliran Mesra Alam or MSMA) - to
replace the previous procedures from 1995. The manual guides development projects to
address issues related to local runoff such as flash flooding, erosion and sedimentation, as well
as water quality deterioration. Implementation of MSMA shifted the focus away from rapid
stormwater disposal through river and drainage networks to managing and controlling
stormwater at source using detention and/or retention, infiltration and purification processes.
The manual also considers existing issues such as flash flood, river pollution, soil erosion, hill
development, in an attempt to maintain runoff quality and quantity in a developing area at a
pre-development state.
MSMA continues to gradually evolve with the introduction of Erosion and Sediment Control
Plan (ESCP) as part of Earthwork Plan, treatment control facilities like constructed wetlands,
engineered waterways, infiltration facilities, bio-retention facilities, etc. for post construction
water quality control measures, retrofitting exercises to convert rapid disposal facilities, as well
as professional training and awareness programmes (Md Noh 2008). The manual was updated
in 2011, with the second edition including revision of design criteria and parameters, and
improved design calculation methods (Zakaria et al 2014).
However, the rainfall design curves for design storms have not been updated in the manual to
reflect likely shifts in rainfall intensities, duration or frequency of different events under climate
change. As a result, some of the recommendations for runoff and urban drainage may be
inadequate to deal with mid- to long-term climate risks.
SMART Tunnel
Kuala Lumpur’s Stormwater Management and Road Tunnel (SMART), a combined stormwater
and motorway tunnel was, conceived as a project under the Malaysian Federal Government to
alleviate flooding in the city centre.
The SMART project was implemented through a joint venture pact between MMC Corp Berhad
and Gamuda Berhad with DID, and the Malaysian Highway Authority as the executing
government agencies. SMART is a dual-purpose tunnel, incorporating a double-deck motorway
to relieve traffic congestion within the middle section of a stormwater tunnel. It was completed
on 30 June 2007. Designed first and foremost as a flood control measure, the motorway
section is closed for flood operations as needed, with the protocol maintained by the national
government through DID.
The tunnel has three modes of operation:
• Mode I – No storm or rainfall (peak river flow is less than 70 cumecs), the road section
operates normally and traffic is able to use the tunnel to exit Kuala Lumpur city centre;
• Mode 2 – Minor or moderate storm (peak river flow is between 70 and 150 cumecs),
semi-open status, diversion of water flow from the confluence of Klang River and
Ampang River allowed through the lowest channel of the road tunnel section, with the
motorway section operating normally; and
• Mode 3 - Major storm or prolonged downpour (river flow predicted to exceed 150
cumecs), the stormwater tunnel is activated to fully open status, to divert water flow at
full capacity from the confluence of the two rivers into holding ponds, with the
entrances to the motorway section closed to traffic.
The SMART tunnel has proven to be a success in meeting its primary and secondary
objectives, resulting in reduced flooding incidents in the flood-prone areas of Masjid Jamek,
Dataran Merdeka, Leboh Ampang and Jalan Melaka. Between 2007-2012, Mode 3 operation
was activated to prevent potentially severe flooding a total of seven times: two times each in
2007, 2008, and 2012 (up to May) and once in 2011. Around 38,000 vehicles use the doubledeck motorway each day.
19
A DID survey concluded that within the concession period spanning 30 years, SMART is
expected to prevent USD1.58 billion of possible flood damage and up to USD1.26 billion
savings from traffic congestion. The savings are likely to be significantly more over the next
decade, since these estimates are only for the duration of the concession – the tunnel has a
design life of some 100 years. However, the tunnel design does not incorporate possible shifts
in flood characteristics due to climate change and urbanisation, so the savings may decrease
over time as climate risks increase.
The combination of spatial land use planning, and mitigation and disaster risk management
policies at the national and state levels influence local level policies and plans. The next
section provides a brief overview of the relevant plans, policies and programmes that guide
spatial planning, low carbon development and DRM efforts in each of the municipalities.
20
DBKL Policies and Plans for Development and Resilience
The overall development of Kuala Lumpur is guided by the Kuala Lumpur Structure Plan 2020
(KLSP2020), which covers the “the vision, goals, policies and proposals to guide the
development of Kuala Lumpur.” The KLSP2020 is “a detailed lot based plan that determines
land use zoning, development intensity, use classes [sic] and planning guidelines for the
purpose of the development control” (DBKL 2017a) The plan went through public hearings,
during which time there was significant public resistance related to a projected increase in
population density above what is indicated in the National Physical Plan, and the development
of existing green lungs and open spaces within the city (Coalitions for Good Governance
2008).
According to the Federal Territory (Planning) Act of 1982, in the absence of a local plan, the
development plan becomes the Structure Plan for the area (Government of Malaysia 1982;
1984). The plan was never gazetted, and as such is not binding. It is currently being used as a
reference for zoning and development permit approvals as no other local plan is in effect
(consultations with DBKL City Planning Dept. 2016). As such, the KLSP2020 is currently the
legal development document for Kuala Lumpur, and will undergo a revision processes in 2017
for the planning period of 2030-2040 (consultations with DBKL 2016). Further detail about
projected population increases, land use zoning and development intensity – all of which
impact future urban climate risks and low carbon development – is not currently (early 2017)
publicly available with the planned revision.
Given the extended planning horizon of the planning period, mainstreaming climate risk
considerations into zoning, development intensity and land use classes is of utmost importance
to avoid locking DBKL into particular land use configurations that exacerbate urban heat island
and flooding hazards. Yet many of the spatial and development plans do not explicitly
mainstream mitigation or adaptation measures. As such, DBKL has developed separate plans,
programmes and activities for mitigation and adaptation – see Table 5.
Table 5: DBKL mitigation policies and programmes (Lim 2017; UTM 2016; consultations with
DBKL 2017; Pemandu 2012 and 2017b; NIACS 2017; consultations with DBKL 2017).
Plan or Activity
SEDA-DBKL Energy
Audit
Key Agencies or
Groups
DBKL and Sustainable
Energy Development
Authority (SEDA)
Overview
Starting with Menara DBKL 1, SEDA is conducting
energy audits for the municipal buildings, with the
aim of reducing consumption, and thus its RM13
million in electricity bills, by 20-30%.
Low Carbon
Development Plan
Blueprint
DBKL and Low
Carbon Asia Research
Centre of the
Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia
The overall aim of the blueprint is to reduce the
carbon intensity of Kuala Lumpur by 50%, relative
to GDP, by 2030 compared to 2010. Plan
completion and public release expected in
November 2017.
Tree planting and
park adoption
under NKEA EEP6
DBKL and private
sector
The programme encourages companies to adopt
public parks - taking over park maintenance for a
number of years, or sponsor tree planting in other
parts of the city. The large number of additional
trees will sequester CO2 from the atmosphere.
While the initial target for the EPP was 100,000
new trees planted between 2010 and 2020, DBKL
currently targets planting 40,000 trees a year.
During consultations with DBKL staff, the officials identified some city disaster risk policies as
ones that could contribute to overall climate adaptation efforts.
DBKL has more than 800 out of 3,299 slopes within its jurisdiction designated as high-risk of
slope failure and to be closely monitored to prevent death and property damage. Under the
Kuala Lumpur Hazard and Risk Map Application System (KULSIS), high-risk slopes are closely
21
monitored for signs of distress including soil erosion, clogged drains or land movement, and
repaired or maintained before slope failure occurs. The slope hazard mapping initiative, which
is now in its second phase, is also utilised to advise on resource allocation as well as approval
for development on slopes. In 2014, the Federal Government set aside an allocation of RM15.3
million for remedial and maintenance work on the slopes identified (Wong 2014). The initiative
is crucial in protecting people, buildings and assets from landslides that can be triggered by
heavy rainfall events or waterlogging.
DBKL has been continuously upgrading its drainage system in areas identified as flood prone.
During the 9th Malaysia Plan, the city council invested RM132 million for upgrading drainage
works, including construction of flood retention ponds and flood mitigation water pumps. For
the years 2012-2014, RM10.36 million was spent for flood mitigation - another RM30 million is
earmarked for 2017 (Chariam 2016). In May 2016, Deputy Federal Territories Minister Datuk Dr
J. Loga Bala Mohan was reported as saying that RM92 million was to be spent to improve
Kuala Lumpur’s flash flood mitigation and response system (Carvalho 2016). Activities targeted
under the funding initiative include replacement of old piping, installation of water pumps,
building of retention ponds and road diversions, as well as RM5 million for an integrated traffic
management system to better manage traffic during flash floods.
DBKL does not have a specific disaster risk management plan. In place of a plan, the
municipality has a disaster rescue team known as ‘Skuad Penyelamat’. The team was
established February 1991, to coordinate and provide support for emergency and rescue tasks,
including: rescue volunteer management; establishment of an Emergency Medical Technician
and paramedic team; evacuation and resettlement of disaster victims; maintenance of an
emergency state of preparedness with back-up and logistical support; and establishment of a
training and research institute. DBKL has also undertaken method standardisation for
emergency and rescue cooperation (SPDBKL 2017). DBKL’s Skuad Penyelamat is divided into a
number of units, which cover scuba, paramedic, search and rescue, general assistance,
administration and logistics. The units respond to events such as fires, road accidents,
drowning - especially during flooding events, search and rescue in building collapse, and
emergency and paramedic assistance.
MBPJ Policies and Plans for Development and Resilience
Both MBPJ and MPAJ refer to the Selangor State Structural Plan 2020 (2005-2020) in
developing their LPs (JPBD 2007). The local planning for Petaling Jaya is covered by two plans,
RTPJ1 and RTPJ2. They were originally written to cover the period 1997-2010, and were
gazetted in 2007. In February 2013 amendments to RTPJ1 and RTPJ2 were submitted to the
Selangor State Planning Committee, and approved in July of the same year. The amendments
were withdrawn following public outcry and protests by city councillors in 2014. In June 2015,
the State Planning Committee approved a redrafted version of the amendments for public
hearing (MBPJ 2015). The amendments have not yet been gazetted. During the consultations, it
was not possible to get detailed information about population growth and land use planning
scenarios - but MBPJ will continue to expand. The manner of urbanisation will impact MBPJ's
overall climate resilience.
Launched in 2014, the Sustainable PJ 2030 is a framework compiling a number of initiatives
with the aim of making Petaling Jaya “[a] liveable and sustainable city that has good image,
good governance with a harmonious and healthy environment.” The plan includes a drainage
master plan and a rainwater management master plan, as well as numerous other programmes
covering Environment, Economy, Culture and Community, Good Governance and Living (MBPJ
2017).
22
Table 6: MBPJ mitigation policies and programmes (KeTTHA 2011; UNDP 2017; Carbon Trust 2015;
Carbon Trust 2015a; Carbonn Climate Registry 2017; consultations with MBPJ 2016; Ch’ng 2014).
Plan or Activity
Low Carbon Cities
Framework
Key Agencies or
Groups
MBPJ, KeTTHA and
Malaysian Institute
of Planners
Overview
MBPJ adopted the Low Carbon Cities
Framework developed by KeTTHA and MIP, as
their guideline for its transition to a Low Carbon
City in 2010. The framework consists of four
main areas; Urban Environment, Urban
Transport, Urban Infrastructure and Buildings.
These main areas are then split up into 35 subcriteria for low carbon performance.
The project aims to facilitate the introduction of
low carbon initiatives in the participating cities,
through policy support, improving awareness
and local capacities, and encouraging
investments in low carbon technologies.
Green Technology
Application for the
Development of Low
Carbon Cities
MBPJ, KeTTHA with
funding from
UNDP-GEF
Low Carbon City Action
Plan
MBPJ and Carbon
Trust
The plan aims to reduce the city’s greenhouse
gas emissions by 10% by 2020, 20% by 2025
and 30% by 2030, all relative to the baseline
year 2014. This is to be achieved be reducing
energy consumption in the residential,
commercial and industrial sectors, more efficient
new developments, increased renewable
energy installation and a shift away from
individual, fossil fuel based vehicles.
Carbon Management Plan
MBPJ and Carbon
Trust
Staff energy saving
MBPJ staff
Urban greening
MBPJ
The plan outlines a suite of specific measures,
targeting a 25% reduction in MBPJ’s
organisational greenhouse gas emissions
compared to 2014. These measures include
switching street lighting to LEDs, upgrading
cooling systems and building fabric and
installing photovoltaics in a number of MBPJ
buildings.
Energy reducing behaviours including: switching
office lights off during the lunch break,
increasing the office temperature to 24 degrees
and switching computers to hibernation mode
when not in use. These changes are
implemented alongside switching of office
lighting to LEDs, and a planned introduction of
ISO 50001 (energy management) certification of
municipal operations. MBPJ also purchased 20
electric motorcycles for the use of community
service staff.
A tree planting programme and forest
conservation activities.
GBI requirements for new
buildings
MBPJ and
builders/developers
New bungalows and semi-detached housing
must be fitted with rainwater harvesting
equipment. Commercial and mixed commercial
developments, must in addition to rainwater
harvesting, also follow water and energy
standards for the GBI, utilize LED lighting, live up
to the requirements of the Urban Stormwater
Management Manual and reserve 10-15% of the
total development area for green space.
Homeowner energy
efficiency rebate
MBPJ
A tax incentive scheme for homeowners to
retrofit their houses for energy and water
efficiency, and better waste management. The
scheme offers a tax rebate of up to 100% of the
cost of the retro-fit or RM500, whichever is
lower.
23
During consultations with MBPJ staff, the officials identified the following city land use
management and disaster-related policies and activities as ones that could contribute to overall
climate adaptation efforts.
The MBPJ Drainage Master Plan and Rainwater Management Plan addresses the issues of
future development coordination and flood damages minimisation for the north area of Petaling
Jaya (MBPJ 2017b). The master plans aim to formulate long-term solutions to drainage and
flooding issues through implementation of integrated rainfall management in existing
development areas in order to reduce the impact of flooding on residents and their properties.
The master plans also aim to optimise the effectiveness of existing rainfall runoff infrastructure
in affected areas.
MBPJ set up its Natural Disaster Operations Centre to function as an information centre to
handle logistics and technical aspects during any natural disasters. Fourteen council halls
throughout the municipality will be used as disaster relief centres in the event of an
emergency. In 2015, 23 personnel under the supervision of the Enforcement Department were
involved in patrolling 50 identified hot spots in Petaling Jaya and providing disaster assistance
as the rescue team ‘Skuad Pantas’. The primary weather-related disasters to which Skuad
Pantas responds are heavy rain, flash floods and fallen trees (Tan 2015). MBPJ’s Skuad Pantas’
main tasks are to (MBPJ 2017a):
•
•
•
•
•
•
identify disaster events such as fire, flooding, landslide and fallen trees due to storms;
activate team members on duty to the disaster location and operation centre (if
needed);
prepare any rescue equipment needed for operation;
provide early disaster assessment and information to the management;
inform other relevant internal departments as well as external agencies responsible for
disaster rescue; and
prepare a full report on the disaster within 24 hours.
MPAJ Policies and Plans for Development and Resilience
As indicated previously, MPAJ refers to the Selangor State Structural Plan 2020 (2005-2020)
in developing its LPs (JPBD 2007). The Ampang Jaya Local Plan (Amended 2) 2020 was
gazetted in January 2016 after going through seven main stages according to the legal
requirements of Act 172. The local plan covers the whole area under MPAJ’s administration
within the two districts of Gombak and Hulu Langat. The overall area of 143.5 km2 is divided
into three mukims (sub-districts), which are Hulu Klang sub-district and part of Setapak subdistrict in Gombak, and Ampang sub-district in Hulu Langat. The plan covers area that is
bordered on the northern part by Mukim Setapak, which is partly under the administration of
DBKL.
The Ampang Jaya Local Plan was developed with eight objectives in mind: to translate policies
outlined in the NPP and SSP into physical form and evaluate the success of their
implementation; to formulate development strategies that are appropriate for areas under
MPAJ; to establish a framework for land use development to develop areas under MPAJ based
on relevant issues and potential; to provides measures for protection and improvement of the
environment, preserve topography, trees and historic sites and buildings with aesthetic values
within the MPAJ areas; plan provision of open/recreational areas for beautification and
landscaping; plan development of traffic and communication networks; provide guidelines for
development including aspects of urban design, housing, industry, businesses, infrastructure
and utilities provision, community facilities and others; and provide guidelines and framework
on aspects related to agriculture, retention, conservation and management of the environment
(MPAJ 2016).
While there is no mention of hazard zoning within its urban planning, one of the criteria for
categorisation of development blocks for the MPAJ local plan is Conservation Area. Nearly half
of the area under MPAJ is categorised as conservation area, mainly for Simpang Ampang and
24
Hulu Gombak Forest Reserves. As the local plan refers to the SSP 2020, it adopts the multifocus strategies of the state structural plan, which include preservation and conservation of
Environmentally Sensitive areas such as permanent forest reserves, hilly and steep slope
areas, as well as water catchment areas. Indirectly, preservation of forested areas and
prohibition of building on steep slopes can help reduce some landslide and flooding risk, and
decrease the overall urban heat island effect.
Table 7: MPAJ mitigation policies and programmes
Plan or Activity
SEDA-MPAJ energy audit
Resident Community
Gardens
Key Agencies or
Groups
MPAJ and
Sustainable Energy
Development
Authority (SEDA)
MPAJ Youth and
Community
Department
Overview
MPAJ has been in discussion with SEDA to embark
on energy consumption audit and energy
reduction measures for MPAJ building.
MPAJ is providing RM2000 equipment and seed
grant to resident committees interested in
establishing community gardens in their
neighbourhoods. At present, there are five
community gardens utilising vacant plots of land Bukit Indah Phase One, Bukit Indah Phase Three,
Merpati Flat in Pandan Indah, Pandan Mewah and
Keramat AU2.
MPAJ developed its Risk Management Master Plan for Natural Disaster (2012-2016) to ensure
identified disasters are handled properly by the right personnel in the event of an incident and
avoid significant loss and/or damage (MPAJ nd). As such, the plan focuses primarily on disaster
relief and rescue with little attention to pre-disaster risk management and planning. In the
master plan, proper handling of the identified risks is elaborated in the action plans. Action
plans established in the master plan are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Action Plan for Rescuing Victims Trapped in Elevators
Action Plan for Fire Incident at Menara MPAJ
Risk Management Plan for Natural Disaster
Slope Management Plan
Action Plan and Communication Manual for Crisis
Action Plan for the Information Security Management System (ISMS)
Organisational Integrity Plan
The Risk Management Plan for Natural Disaster outlines the necessary actions to be taken in
the event of non-fatal incidents involving fallen trees, flooding, and landslides that do not
involve any damages. It aims to ensure initial assistance in emergencies within 15 to 30 minutes
depending on traffic conditions; ensure that all officers and personnel-in-charge are able to
implement relief operations according to the action plan and in compliance to safety
requirements; and lead coordination of initial assistance in accordance to the National Security
Council’s Directive No 20 - before handing additional response over to the Emergency and
Disaster Management Committee. Actions described under the Plan include ensuring no road
blockage due to fallen trees to avoid a traffic jam, initial evacuation of flooding victims to
shelters, and providing logistical assistance as well as temporary shelters to landslide victims.
MPAJ’s Enforcement Department and its emergency response team known as ‘Skuad Pantas’
are responsible for operating the local emergency hotline and control room, securing key
information on complaints and/or disaster events for further action, and undertaking early
disaster assessments of fallen trees, flooding and landslides.
About 48% of monitored slopes in MPAJ are located on private property, complicating
maintenance. In March 2010, MPAJ launched its Guidelines on Slope Maintenance for the
Public to educate residents and the public on slope monitoring and maintenance. It explains
25
precautionary measures possible to reduce risks of slope failure, provides easy to understand
tips on how to maintain slopes, gives pictorial guidance on how to detect signs of a potential
landslide, and informs the public on relevant authorities to contact in the event of an
emergency or landslide incident. The Slope Management Plan was also developed to ensure
new applications for development on slopes comply with the latest guidelines related to slope
development; ensure monitoring of slopes on council land is carried out according to schedule;
and ensure that maintenance of slopes on council land is executed.
Following the fatal slope failure incident in December 2008 (refer back to Table 2). MPAJ
established a task force together with multiple partners such as Slope Engineering Division of
the Department of Works, Selangor’s Housing and Property Board, Land and the District Offices
of Gombak and Hulu Langat to begin monitoring for slope failure. The city identified 28 slopes
in need of critical and urgent failure mitigation and maintenance, as well as the need for a
dedicated unit to address slope failures in Ampang Jaya. On 3 December 2009, MPAJ became
the first local authority with an internal Slope Division. The division now monitors 349 slope
locations, 182 of which are on council land and the remaining 167 on private land. Similar to
DBKL, monitoring and mitigation of potential slope failure are important for reducing damages
and loss of life during heavy rainfall events.
The next section explores the implications of spatial, land use and socio-economic planning,
within the context of shifting weather and climate-related hazards due to climate change, to
generating climate risks for buildings.
26
Climate Risk Implications for Urban Green Building Efforts
Climate change is altering the frequency, intensity and duration of extreme weather and
climate-related hazards like heavy rainfall, heat waves and flooding (IPCC 2012). At the same
time, cities throughout Asia are rapidly expanding, shifting the landscapes in which the cities
are built and creating new opportunities and climate risks for residents, businesses and urban
infrastructure (Friend et al 2014; Du et al 2016). Cities’ locations are critical in their exposure to
climate-related hazards, with many cities in Asia – like Greater KL – located in floodplains or
coastal areas. Land use change and the way urban infrastructure is constructed, including
buildings, contribute to the overall vulnerability and propensity of the infrastructure to suffer
damage during climate-related hazards.
Climate change adaptation is not yet specifically mainstreamed into municipal policies or
programmes. Some of the cities are beginning to consider climate risks and the need for
responding to these risks over the short (>5 years), mid- (5 to 20 years) and long-term (+20
years) given planning horizons and the lifetime of infrastructure. In the absence of explicit
mention of climate adaptation planning, each study municipality has a few policies in place that
can add to overall urban climate resilience.
Buildings often serve as the first line of defence against natural hazards to protect occupants,
assets and productivity. Climate risks to infrastructure – the types of impacts that could occur
should certain weather or climate-related hazards happen – result from the interaction of
building vulnerability, exposure and the type and severity of hazard.
There are multiple types of weather and
climate-related
hazards
to
which
buildings are exposed. Exposure is
essentially due to the location of a
building in a hazard-prone area, such as
a floodplain. In the Greater KL region, the
dominant hazards are flooding, heat
waves, haze and landslides.
Climate Risks to Urban Infrastructure
Climate risks to infrastructure result from the
interaction of vulnerability, exposure and
the type and severity of hazard. In the
greater KL region, buildings are exposed to
flash flooding, heat waves, haze and
landslides. Building vulnerability is due to
policies – land use zoning, building codes,
etc. - and their enforcement, coordination
between
responsible
agencies,
construction quality, quality of building
materials and maintenance.
The vulnerability of buildings is
determined through a combination of
factors, including: policies, construction
materials, building façade type, and
quality
of
construction,
building
orientation and style, and maintenance.
Policy and coordination of policy
Buildings are often the first line of defence
development and implementation are
protecting people and assets from hazard
important components of vulnerability; a
impacts. Resilient infrastructure is robust
building might be constructed to meet
and functional during a hazard event, is not
certain energy standards set by the
located within hazard prone areas, and
urban planning committee but not be
sustains minimal damage so that repairs are
able to withstand severe wind or heavy
also minimal. The integration of multi-hazard
rainfall impacts as specified by the
resilient design principles with green
disaster risk reduction committee. Or a
building principles in an integrated design
building might be constructed within a
and building framework and policies that
floodplain even knowing that damage is
mainstream climate change adaptation are
likely to happen. Design codes and
important in realising resilient, low carbon
specifications may not be current and
urban areas.
reflect shifting the shifting frequency and
intensity of extreme weather hazards, or
new hazards for which a city has little experience. In other words, the vulnerability of buildings
is entirely due to human choices and actions.
What are some climate risks facing Greater KL’s buildings due to shifting hazards and
potentially outdated building codes and land use plans?
27
Urban Heat Island and Heat Waves
Numerous studies reviewed by Elsayed (2012) demonstrate that the commercial centres of
Kuala Lumpur are 2° to 7°C hotter than surrounding countryside. The urban heat island effects
of Kuala Lumpur are not caused by climate change, but by urban development. As the number
of buildings has increased, green spaces are being reduced, causing temperatures to rise.
Building and road materials – concrete, steel, glass, asphalt and brick – absorb and release
more heat back into the city. Air conditioning units, cars and other equipment are all heat
sources. The configuration (layout) of buildings and roads can also reduce ventilation (wind flow
through the city) that help to disperse heat.
Greater climate variability and change are increasing the number of hot days and length of heat
waves in Greater KL. As shown in Figure 7, the number of hot days per year is likely to increase
30 to 60% by 2041-2060, and almost double by 2081-2100 when compared with the past.
Urban plans for development and land use, and buildings constructed today will impact Greater
KL’s urban heat island effects for multiple decades – at least 50 to 70 years. Heat-related
climate risks need to be considered when developing urban plans and specifying building
codes.
Table 8: Heat-related risks for buildings (Hall 2011; Nikolowski et al 2013; Ghaffarianhoseini et al 2016;
Opitz-Stapleton et al 2016; Holmes 2016; Houska 2016; Haggag 2007)
Heat-Related Risks
The number of hot days in Greater KL is
exacerbated by KL’s urban heat island effect
and is likely to increase because of climate
change.
Building Resilience Measures
Heat stress thresholds for building occupants
and the likely increase in the number of hot
days and heat waves needs to be considered
in building design and building standards.
Heat waves and high temperatures do not
often cause direct damage to buildings. Heatrelated risks in buildings are related to:
• Poor ventilation and thermal comfort for
occupants leading to heat stress and heat
stroke for people.
• Increased internal building temperatures
causing damage to equipment, particularly
– computers, manufacturing equipment
and other electronics
Design measures incorporating site design,
vegetative shielding, building orientation,
building skins, energy-efficient windows,
ventilation and interior room location can
improve buildings’ resilience to heat. Some
standard
protective
measures
include
overhangs and setbacks to protect windows
and provide shading.
However, granite and marble can experience
bowing and heat deformation, causing damage
to building exteriors. Direct solar radiation and
heat loading cause the most deformation in
building stones.
Buildings with single-layer glass skins and/or
without adequate ventilation trap internally
generated heat and allow solar radiation and
exterior heat to enter the building.
Air conditioning demand increases during heat
waves and days when the urban heat island
effect is strong, particularly in poorly
constructed buildings. This leads to:
• Increased energy consumption
• Increased heat released into the urban
environment
• Increased emissions
Low-emittence (low-E) glazing on windows can
reduce solar heat gain, provide glare control
and allow a maximum amount of sunlight into
the building interior. Energy-efficient windows
are more resistant to condensation formation.
Double-skin façades (DSFs) – a second skin
positioned over the interior building skin – can:
• reflect solar radiation and heat away from
the building interior to reduce air
conditioning needs
• improve ventilation
• direct daylight further into the building
interior and reduce lighting requirements.
• protect stone accents from direct solar
radiation
The above can help maintain habitability during
power outages in heat waves.
28
All three LAs are promoting
expansion of urban green
spaces and tree planting for
carbon
sequestration
and
enhancing city liveability. Urban
green spaces also can assist in
offsetting
the
UHI
and
enhancing thermal comfort, as
well as improving air and water
quality (Demuzere et al 2014).
However, climate change does
pose risks to urban greening
programmes. Climate change is
influencing the spread and
range of plant fungal and
bacterial diseases, along with
pest insects, and may threaten
urban greening efforts (Tubby
and Webber 2010). Different
plant species have various
hydrological and climatological
growth
requirements,
and
Figure 9: Examples of DSF for building passive ventilation
climate
change
may
alter
(Ghaffarianhoseini et al. 2016: 1054). When combined with urban
temperatures, humidity and
green corridors, appropriate spacing and siting of adjacent
precipitation
beyond
the
buildings and vegetation screens, UHI impacts on buildings can
liveability requirements of some
be reduced.
types of vegetation being
planted to make a greener
Greater KL. The choice of vegetation – trees, grasses, shrubs, etc. – should account for
potential shifts in temperatures, drought length and frequency and air pollution, as well as the
spread of native and non-native plant diseases and pests, otherwise costs may be incurred.
Prior to the 2009 launch of Malaysia’s Green Building Index, few of the buildings in Greater KL
adhered to green building standards. The use of DSFs to reduce heat-related risks to building
occupants and equipment remains low in Greater KL (Kandar and Rehmani 2010) - though,
notable examples include the LEO office of the Ministry of Energy, Water and Communication
and the Menara Mesiniaga. Malaysia’s Green Building Index Rating System provides a number
of benchmark attributes, such as mould prevention or thermal comfort that are dependent on
weather and climatic conditions, but do not specifically account for climate change. The mould
provision in the GBI Design Reference Guide – Non-Residential New Construction, for
example, lists that controls should be put in place to prevent rainwater leakage through roof
and walls and prevent groundwater intrusion into basements, but does not provide
recommendations for seeking design specifications that incorporate climate change concerns
for dealing with rainfall of different intensities and durations. The thermal comfort criteria for
buildings currently being constructed are to adhere to Malaysian Standards MS 1525 (2007)
and ASHRAE 55 (2010) – both of which do not account for shifts in diurnal temperatures,
alteration of wind flow, increasing heat waves and worsening urban heat islands. Coordination
between the Department of Standards Malaysia and the Malaysia Meteorological Department
could be beneficial in exploring potential shifts in various weather and climatic conditions over
the short, medium and long terms to recommend new design and construction standards
depending on the expected lifetime of the building.
29
Air Pollution and Haze
The principle sources of air pollution with the Klang
Valley are vehicle emissions (~76% of emission loads
in 2012), followed by emissions related to energy
generation and use for things like air conditioning,
lighting and industrial usage and land use change
(Ahmat et al 2015; Ling et al 2010). As the population
in the Greater KL conurbation has grown, more land
is being converted to commercial, industrial and
residential buildings and energy demand and
emissions have increased. Additional pollution
sources contributing to haze and poor air quality
include forest fires and windblown dust. Urban heat
islands and heat waves accelerate the formation of
smog (ozone) and ground level pollution (Gorsevksi
et al 1998). Additionally, acid rain can form when
nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur dioxide from vehicle
and power plant emissions combine and are trapped
in raindrops. Pollution and haze pose risks to
building facades and materials.
Figure 10: Corrosion at junction of
dissimilar metals (MECF nd).
Table 9: Air pollution and haze risks to buildings (Cardell et al 2008; Houska 2016; Efficient Windows
Collaborative 2016; MECF nd)
Air Pollution Risks
Building Resilience Measures
Ozone (haze), high humidity and acid rain corrode
building skins and cores. Certain construction
materials, like concrete with high limestone content
or stone, are more prone to corrosion than others.
Junctures where two different materials, such as
steel reinforcing and alumninum posts, tend to
greater corrosion as well. Building corrosion can
damage façade materials and building skin, as well
impact the structural integretity of the building
frame.
Stainless steel and glass withstand ozone
and acid rain corrosion fairly well.
Having to repair or replace building materials due to
corrosion – or damage from other natural hazards –
is often costly and reduces the overall energy
efficiency and environmental sustainability of a
building.
The population of the Greater KL region is
increasing rapidly, with more people driving.
Emissions from vehicles, buildings and power plants
are expected to increase. At the same time, Greater
KL is experiencing warmer temperatures due to its
urban heat island. Climate change is also expected
to increase the number of heat waves. All of these
factors mean that haze and air pollution in the
region are likely to increase in the future.
Care must be taken when selecting the type
of low-E window glazing – such as those with
high silver content – as some types are more
prone to corrosion in high pollution areas
than others.
Picking corrosion resistant low-E window
glaze and building skin materials reduces
maintenance costs, improves overall energy
efficiency
and
the
environmental
sustainability of the building.
DSFs and vegetation can help protect more
corrosion-prone materials that might be used
to make the building more aesthetically
pleasing.
30
Wind Loads
Thunderstorms, such as those that bring
extreme rainfall to Greater KL, often have
significant wind gusts. Wind eddies and
flow are also affected by the spacing and
orientation of closely-placed skyscrapers
and high-rise buildings in urban areas
(Nanduri et al 2013; Cheung and Liu 2011).
Multi-storied buildings without outriggers or
lateral support systems can have a lateral
displacement of greater than 2m between
the base and the top due to wind loads,
placing considerable strain on buildings
and contributing to column failure in the
building core. Given the increasing rates of
building densification, and the potential
intensification of storms due to climate
change, it is likely that wind loads on
Greater KL building infrastructure is likely to
increase in the future.
Figure 11: External wind and seismic forces acting
upon high-rise buildings (Nanduri et al 2013: 77).
Table 10: Wind loading risks to buildings (Bitsuamlak et al 2010)
Wind Loading Risks
Building Resilience Measures
Climate change is likely to increase the intensity
(strength) of storms over Greater KL. Stronger
storms are likely to be accompanied by stronger
winds and wind gusts.
Coordination and planning of building
orientation, spacing and height is necessary
between the urban planning department and
building architects.
Wind shear due to wind bursts in thunderstorms
and due to eddies off of nearby buildings place
significant strain and loading on buildings.
Computational flow dynamic models or other
types of very high resolution models are
necessary to determine the optimal siting, height
and orientation of a new building to minimise
wind loading on adjacent buildings and not
reduce passive ventilation measures.
Buildings too closely spaced or not oriented
correctly can reduce the effectiveness of
passive ventilation measures (e.g. DSFs)
introduced to improve and individual building’s
energy efficiency and reduce the need for air
conditioning.
Increased wind loads can also cause significant
damage to solar PV, rainwater harvesting and
green roof/ wall systems introduced on energy
efficient buildings.
Additionally, such models need to account for
higher wind loads and gusts that are possible
due to stronger storms. Building lateral support
systems may need to be redesigned to reduce
building damage replacement costs. Siting and
anchoring of solar PV or green roof systems also
need to consider stronger wind loads.
31
Extreme Rainfall and Flooding
The Greater KL valley is subject to flash flooding and waterlogging to its hilly topography
channelling rainfall down to the Klang River, urban development with impervious surfaces, poor
solid waste management inhibiting drainage and constricting the Klang and its tributaries, and
heavy rainfall events (Zakaria et al 2004; Bahrum and Malek 2016). Flash flooding can occur
during intense, localised rainstorms. Extended flooding (waterlogging) occurs during rainfall
events persisting over consecutive days when soil conditions are saturated. As discussed in
previous sections, the intensity of extreme rainfall events has increased over the Greater KL
region and is likely to continue to increase in the future because of climate change.
Table 11: Extreme rainfall and flooding risks to buildings (Amirebrahimi et al 2015; Becker 2008; FEMA
1999; Lstiburek 2006; Weston et al 2010; NYC Department of City Planning 2013).
Heavy Rainfall and Flooding Risks
Building Resilience Measures
Climate change is likely to increase the intensity
(amount of rainfall in a period of time) of heavy
rainfall events. At the same time, the increase of
impervious surfaces like buildings and roads
prevents the absorption of rain. These factors
contribute to worsening flash floods and
waterlogging.
Methods for protecting the building and internal
assets include:
• raising building foundation above the new
flood depths likely due to heavier rain and
urban development,
• materials that are resilient to water damage
and scouring,
• wall cladding to reduce water leakage and
facilitate building drying in Greater KL’s hot
and humid climate,
• using the ground and first floors of buildings
for nonessential activities to minimise asset
loss,
• sealing building skins against water
intrusion, and
• working with urban planners to selectively
install floodwalls and flood retention
vegetation to carefully route flood waters
away from all buildings in a vicinity
Increasing urbanisation and intensity and
frequency of heavy rainfall will alter the nature of
flood events around Greater KL. It is already
being observed in other urban areas that what
was once the 100-year flood has become the
20-year flood, in some instances. Flood
frequencies (recurrence intervals) and depths
need to be updated to account for urbanisation
impacts and climate change impacts related to
rainfall.
Flood damage to buildings results from:
• flood depth and velocity,
• building materials’ susceptibility to water
damage,
• length of time portions of the building is
submerged,
• impact loads from flood debris
Damage to building assets and utilities (e.g. air
conditioning, water and sewage pipes) occurs
due to inundation and contamination in flood
water.
Wet building materials can quickly mould in
Greater KL’s hot, humid climate, creating
unhealthy working and living conditions for
building occupants.
Flood design practices incorporating projected
changes in flood characteristics due to urban
development and climate change are
necessary. This requires coordination with the
Department of Irrigation and Drainage, and
other relevant agencies that research and
monitor
historic
flood
elevations
and
probabilities of occurrence, working to
determine how baseline flood conditions might
change in the future, and what the new flood
zones and flood elevations might be. Design
specifications
of
flood-resistant
building
techniques for all buildings located within a
base flood elevation zone – such as the
projected 100-year flood zone in 2060 – need
to be developed and required for all building
retrofits and new construction. These are policy
arrangements
that
require
coordination
between multiple government agencies for
flood risk assessment, building design and
urban
development
policy
formulation,
implementation and enforcement.
32
Urban infrastructure, from government and private sector buildings, roadways and stormwater
management systems, has long life times and cycles spanning multiple decades. While spatial
land use planning is encouraging urban green spaces and flood retention/detention planning,
the planning has not been updated to reflect the possible shifts in weather and climate-related
hazard frequencies and intensities. It is more difficult to revert or convert existing land use
types (e.g. buildings or roads) back to green space, and building repairs post-hazard event can
be costly. Land use zoning and flood plain management practices can either enhance urban
resilience or lock-in climate risks for existing and future development. It is cheaper and more
energy efficient to reduce materials use by avoiding the need for massive building repairs by
incorporating flexible zoning and design specifications for new and retrofitted buildings.
Figure 12: Flooding in Kuala Lumpur.
Source: The New Straits Times Press.
Figure 12: Flooding in Kuala Lumpur.
Source: The New Straits Times Press.
Preservation of green spaces and open flood
plains, in conjunction with waste management
is important in reducing flood depths and
velocities, and improving rainfall infiltration
during storms. Municipalities in Greater KL
have instituted a number of flood management
projects such as the SMART Tunnel, detention
ponds and Gombak and Keroh flood
diversions that have reduced current flash
flood prone areas. However, it is not clear that
these flood management projects accounted
for climate change shifts in extreme rainfall
events, or in the actual implementation of
building codes requiring land developers to
put in sufficient drainage. Thus future flash
flooding area, depths and velocities may
increase and cause significant damage to
existing and planned urban infrastructure. The
2011 National Hydrology Plan discusses the
need for integrated river basin management
and
coordinating
with
the
Malaysian
Meteorological Service to improve flood
forecasting and management planning, but it is
not clear from the respective agency websites
or publications if such cooperation has been
implemented.
Figure 13: Example of building design flood specifications for buildings
located within the floodplain, from New York City (NYC Planning 2013: 17).
33
Recommendations
From the consultations and policy review, it would appear that proactive disaster and climate
risk management, other than for slope failure management and flooding, has only recently
begun to be examined by decision makers. Municipal plans related to disaster risk
management are focused primarily upon disaster response; mainstreaming of adaptation
measures into urban local plans and structure plans has yet to be done. Significant efforts are
(rightly) being invested in green buildings and low carbon urban development; but
consideration of the shifting nature of weather and climate-related hazards on urban buildings
and infrastructure is emergent in the three study municipalities.
All three study municipalities include hazard prone areas such as steep slopes, increasing
impervious surfaces funnelling runoff into low-lying terrain, and areas adjacent to rivers – not to
mention undergoing rapid population growth and urban expansion. Some of the measures that
could build resilience to weather and climate-related hazards, such as building codes and
zoning regulations could less effective if they are not regularly updated to incorporate the
latest climate change projections, as well as other changes including shifts to societal
structures, demography, environmental degradation, poverty and inequality. Policy tools for
urban and country planning should incorporate climate change mitigation, climate change
adaptation and disaster risk management considerations and good practice. Decision making
gaps between policy formulation at the national level and implementation at the local levels, as
well as knowledge gap between academia, decision makers and the public need to be closed
in order to allow for municipalities in Greater KL and throughout Malaysia to prepare for climate
change.
This study could only provide a broad policy and urban climate risks overview, and potential
implications for low carbon development in municipalities in the Greater KL area. Nonetheless,
a number of lessons and good practice approaches are emerging from urban resilience
initiatives, such as the ‘100 Resilience Cities’ or the ‘Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience
Network’, on integrating climate resilience and low carbon development through a more
holistic, sustainable approach. We make the following recommendations that could initiate
integrated CCM and CCA processes to build urban resilience.
1. Climate Policy Integration and Coherence
While mitigation measures address climate change through reduction of greenhouse gas
emission and increase in carbon sequestration, adaptation responds to climate change by
preparing community and ecosystem to cope with changing conditions. Input gathered during
consultation interviews with the three study municipalities found that there was limited
integration between climate change mitigation policy and practice and climate change
adaptation policy and practice. For example, little or no consideration was given to adaptation
and resilience building objectives in the development of low carbon policies.
Rationale for integration
Lack of coherence between the two components of climate action may result not only in
shortfall or failure to achieve projected policy targets, it also can lead to inefficient use of
limited resources as co-benefit and synergies go unharnessed. The lack of consideration of
mitigation in adaptation initiatives could lead to increased greenhouse gas emissions, while
lack of consideration of adaptation in mitigation initiatives could lead to underperformance due
to direct climate hazards, as well as increase the vulnerability of communities.
Promoting activities that contribute to both climate objectives can also increase the efficiency
of fund allocation and reduce trade-offs (Locatelli et al 2016). Integration of climate change
mitigation and adaptation in programming can also lead to reducing administrative burdens,
minimising duplication, as well as reducing conflicts between in policies.
Reframing
implemented measures as contributing towards climate change mitigation as well as climate
change adaptation also expand its scope in terms of eligibility for external funding application.
This is particularly important for adaptation as funding for adaptation and resilience building is
relatively more limited compared to funding for mitigation.
34
Barriers to Integration
Climate change mitigation and adaptation in the study municipalities are mostly managed by
separate departments or units, with knowledge gaps in understanding the linkages and
intersection between climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Climate change mitigation and adaptation have also become increasingly specialized, and as
such may require significant capacity building efforts to effectively address both aspects
simultaneously. The need for capacity building should be addressed both for individual
practitioners in key positions to influence both issues, as well as overall capacity at department
and organisational levels to address various aspects of mitigation and adaptation. This will
ensure that teams, departments and committees have the necessary competencies to identify
and integrate synergies between the two.
Approaches to address barriers and facilitate integration
The following approaches are being used in global urban resilience initiatives and are also
advocated in the National Policy on Climate Change.
• Assess climate change knowledge gaps. Strengthen understanding of linkages and the
intersection between climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation.
• Reduce capacity and knowledge constraints through training, education and awareness
activities.
• Strengthen climate change mitigation and adaptation coordination by establishing an interdepartmental and inter-agency governance mechanism (i.e.: task force, committee or
working group) with a mandate from top management.
• Provide resources, including financial incentives, and assistance to LAs in applying to
participate in emerging urban climate resilience programmes
Table 12: Examples of potential synergies or risks in implemented measures by study municipalities due
to lack of climate change mitigation and adaptation integration:
Activity
Energy efficiency
targets
Target objective
CCM:
greenhouse
gas
emission
reduction
from
reduced
energy
consumption
Provision of EV
charging stations
Green buildings
CCM:
greenhouse
gas
emission
reduction
from
reduced fossil fuel
consumption
CCM: GHG emission,
natural resource and
water use reductions,
preservation of urban
green spaces and
sensitive ecological
areas
Tree-planting
activities
CCM: carbon sinks
Others: greenery and
shading
Potential co-benefits and/or risks
CCA: potential under-performance due to
increase in ambient temperature, more heat
waves and shifting wind patterns. Net result is
that energy consumption increases for cooling.
Some passive cooling and building ventilation
measures might reduce increasing thermal
burden on building occupants
CCA: potential asset exposure due to
expansion or shift of flood and/or landslide
prone areas due to urbanisation and climate
change
CCA: potential asset exposure to due to
expansion or shift of flood and/or landslide
prone areas due to urbanisation and climate
change. Increased damage to building skins,
cores and internal assets if design specifications
do not account for potential of stronger storms.
Ensuring design codes reflect potential climate
shifts can increase building resilience and
reduce need to replace building materials due
to storm damage.
CCA: UHI mitigation, prevent soil erosion,
improve soil water retention capacity, wind- and
water barrier. However, plants need to be
selected that can survive anticipated climate
changes, including new diseases and pests.
35
2. Local Adaptation and Resilience Building Frameworks
Local authorities are often in the front line of preparing for and responding to hazards and
disasters on the ground. In a world exposed to a wide range of multifaceted hazards and risks,
including those exacerbated by climate change, adaptation and disaster risk reduction often
requires significant resources and capacities. However, if the risks are addressed through an
iterative and learning risk management process, the depth and breadth of impacts could be
reduced and some disasters could be prevented.
Internationally, there are a number of good practice approaches and adaptation planning
frameworks emerging for building urban resilience. We highlight the United Nations Office for
Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR - 2012) checklist of “10 essentials for making cities resilient” to
guide the discussion for forward action in the study municipalities.
Table 13: Examples of potential adaptation and resilience building action to be undertaken by study
municipalities using the UNISDR checklist
UNISDR Resilient Cities
checklist
1. Institutional and
Administrative
Framework
Potential Actions for MPAJ, MBPJ and DBKL
• Strengthen climate change mitigation and adaptation
coordination by establishing an inter-departmental and interagency governance mechanism (i.e.: task force, committee or
working group) with a mandate from top management
• Develop action plan and/or standard operating procedures for
climate-related disasters. E.g. review of MAPJ Pelan
Pengurusan Bencana Alam Risk Management Document
(2012-2016)
2. Financing and
Resources
• Develop strategy for resource mobilization, including local,
state and federal sources of public funding, mobilisation of
private sector funding and incorporation of grants from national
or international donors.
• Explore use of financial tools, such as insurance.
• Reframing of policies in terms of climate change adaptation,
mitigation and resilience opens possibilities for external
funding or co-funding, for local capacity building, policy
development and intervention measure implementation.
3. Multi-hazard Risk
Assessment - Know
your Risk
• Expansion of hazard mapping exercises such as DBKL’s
KULSIS and MPAJ’s critical slope mapping to include other
hazards (i.e.: flash flooding, seasonal flooding, UHI nucleus,
etc.), as well as socio-economic and biophysical vulnerabilities
hotspots (i.e: low income areas, immigrants enclave, senior
citizen communities/clusters, orang asli communities etc.)
• This should include climate projections and be at least at asset
lifetime time scale, i.e. 30-40 years or more.
• Institute a cycle of conducting multi-hazard risk assessments
every 5 years to reflect knew knowledge and the economic
planning cycles.
4. Infrastructure
Protection, Upgrading
and Resilience
• Land use zoning, building design codes and recommendations
for materials need to account for shifts in weather and climaterelated hazards over the asset lifetime time scale.
• Multi-hazard risk management approaches are needed, along
with incorporating flexibility, safe failure, redundancy and
robustness principles into infrastructure.
• This will require the national ministries and LAs to coordinate
with universities and research institutes to understand the
latest climate projections and how to integrate them into
planning processes.
36
UNISDR Resilient Cities
checklist
5. Protect Vital Facilities:
Education and Health
Potential Actions for MPAJ, MBPJ and DBKL
• Medical facilities, power plants, waste and drinking water plants
and schools are critical infrastructure that should be able to
continue to function during and after major hazards, and
transportation networks remain open to move people to critical
facilities during disasters.
• The three municipal areas should review critical infrastructure
exposure based on the current and projected hazard maps,
and target additional retrofitting, setbacks or modifications as
needed to make the facilities robust.
6. Building Regulations
and Land Use Planning
• Updating of existing building codes to incorporate resilience
measures based on climate projections, at least at asset lifetime timescales.
• Integrate hazard map and vulnerability assessment in zoning
and land-use policies and plans.
• Institute interdepartmental cooperation and communication
around vulnerability and risk assessment
• Establish a task force whose role includes regularly conducting
the urban vulnerability and risk assessment, and
communicating implications to other departments for
mainstreaming into policies, plans and actions.
7.
• Based on the hazard map, current and projected at-risk
communities should be targeted with awareness raising efforts
and guidelines for household-scale resilience interventions and
disaster preparedness.
• Utilize civil society through local community leaders,
community-based associations and interest groups to act as
champions and agents of change at the community level
• Ensure facilitation in all relevant languages, and appropriate
channels of communications, particularly in relation to
immigrant and Orang Asli communities
• Collaborate with Universities, State and Federal authorities and
other relevant governing bodies and centres of knowledge
Training, Education and
Public Awareness
8. Environmental
Protection and
Strengthening of
Ecosystems
• Incorporate ecosystem based adaptation measures for flood
management, wetland, river-bank and slope maintenance and
restoration.
• Enhance conservation efforts of forest and watershed areas
• Continue to improve solid waste management, sewerage and
stormwater networks to urban slum and low income areas.
• Ensure that urban greening initiatives are selecting plants that
are resilient to climate change, pests and diseases
• Consider expansion of the urban community garden
programmes of MPAJ to other LAs in the Greater KL region.
9. Effective Preparedness,
Early Warning and
Response
• Ensure efficient coordination with NADMA and other relevant
authorities
• Explore crowd-sourcing of real-time disaster data, through
remote sensing and/or social media
• Ensure redundancy and backup power to monitoring stations
and warning systems so that these remain functional during
and after a hazard event.
10. Recovery and
Rebuilding
Communities
• Build bounce-forward capacity for disaster response and rebuilding. This means taking a multi-hazard approach to rebuild
communities so that they are more resilient against future
hazards, rather than rebuilding according to the old codes and
standards that contributed to community vulnerability in the first
place.
37
3. Integrated Design Approaches Balancing Building Objectives
Constructing truly green and sustainable buildings requires treating development of green
building standards and ideals as a process to be updated as conditions change and new
experiences and knowledge emerge. Some initiatives and practice are beginning to
incorporate guidance on dealing with multiple hazards, biodiversity and green infrastructure
under a more encompassing integrated design framework. Resources from these initiatives
that could be considered when updating Malaysia’s Green Building Index and local and
structural plans include:
Table 14: Some integrated design framework resources
Integrated Design
Approaches
BREEAM – a
sustainable
assessment
methodology and
certification system for
infrastructure,
buildings and master
plans
Resources
• Mitigation, adaptation, resilience: managing climate change risk
through BREEAM http://www.breeam.com/filelibrary/Briefing%20Papers/98689BREEAM-Resilience-Briefing-Note-v6.pdf
• Explicitly incorporates local and shifting climate conditions
Akadiri P, Chinyio E
and Olomolaiye (2012).
Design of a
Sustainable Building: A
Conceptual
Framework for
Implementing
Sustainability in the
Building Sector.
Buildings 2: 126-152
• This paper examines multiple sustainable design frameworks and
practices to develop a more encompassing and systemic
framework. Some green building principles for energy efficiency
and thermal comfort are grouped with natural hazard resilience
under a single objective – Design for Human Adaptation.
Whole Building Design
Objectives from the
National Institute of
Building Sciences
There are 9 Whole Building Design objectives – see
https://www.wbdg.org/resources/whole-building-design:
• Accessible – to meet the needs of disabled people
• Aesthetics – physical appearance of the building elements and
spaces
• Cost-Effective – selecting building elements on the basis of lifecycle costs (including replacement costs due to weather and
climate-related hazards)
• Functional/Operational - spatial needs and requirements, durability
and maintenance of elements
• Historic Preservation
• Productive – enables occupants physical and psychological
comfort, including ventilation, lighting and thermal comfort
• Secure/Safe – physical protection of occupants and assets from
man-made and natural hazards
• Sustainable – environmental performance of building elements and
strategies
38
Annex: Methodology
The research project worked with Carbon Trust and three local authority partners, namely
Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur (DBKL), Majlis Bandaraya Petaling Jaya (MBPJ), and Majlis
Perbandaran Ampang Jaya (MPAJ):
1. Identify climate risks to proposed green building projects;
2. Examine policies guiding and influencing low carbon urban development and the
mainstreaming of climate change adaptation within such policies and practice
3. Identify gaps in policy and practice; and
4. Identify ways of incorporating considerations of climate and underlying non-climate risk
drivers into low carbon strategies and urban design for the project roadmap.
The work under the research project was divided into two parts: 1) a combination of desk-based
literature review of urban risk assessment studies, urban and disaster planning documents, and
journal articles related to climate risks to urban infrastructure and green building design; and 2)
stakeholder consultations with various departments in the three local authorities.
Consultations
Consultations were conducted with a variety of departments from each local authority to gather
information related to three broad topics:
1. identify current hazards and which areas of the city are most exposed;
2. discuss the major non-climate stresses (e.g. population growth) on city infrastructure and
how these might change in the future; and,
3. discuss urban development visions and planning, and how disaster risk reduction and
climate adaptation efforts are coordinated or merged with overall urban and
infrastructure planning.
Consultations were conducted using interview guides to collect information. The consultation
findings are distilled throughout the report.
Literature Review
The literature review consisted of a rapid review of journal articles and grey literature –
conference proceedings, governmental reports and policies, and hazard impact databases –
concerning weather/climate-hazard impacts on buildings and building techniques.
While there is significant, and on-going research into urban infrastructure vulnerability and
climate risks – from examining urban flooding, lifeline impacts or impacts on electricity grids –
our literature review was confined to impacts (current and anticipated) on buildings. Given
Carbon Trust’s primary focus on low carbon building project pipelines in each of the three
municipalities, and the short timeframe allotted for this sub-study, we confined our literature
review to buildings. As such, the majority of the literature was confined to structural engineering,
natural hazards, green building and climate risk sources.
The consultations and literature review revealed that much work remains to be done in each of
the three municipalities toward building urban climate resilience. Full urban sustainability
incorporates not only low-carbon and green development principles, but also those related to
multi-hazard risk reduction.
39
Climate Projections for Malaysia
Climate projections of changes in precipitation and temperature-related hazards and risks were
assessed from a variety of literature and the KNMI Climate Explorer tool. Projections of shifts in
extreme weather are best done using high resolution numerical (Regional Climate Models) and
statistical downscaling techniques. Many of the heavy rainfall events over the greater KL region
are due to convective storms (thunderstorms) during the inter-monsoon periods. Climate models
currently have a hard time replicating thunderstorm formation, although higher resolution
models are better than the large-scale general circulation models. As a result, the ability to
provide more robust ranges of potential changes in extreme rainfall events, from convective
storms lasting a few hours to stratiform rains lasting several days, in particular months/seasons
for various periods of the future is currently limited. This is evident in CMIP5 models’ inability to
capture extreme rainfall variability and determine if future changes will exceed one standard
deviation of current variabilty (hatching in Figure 6). However, overall extreme rainfall is
expected to increase in intensity due to basic atmospheric physics; a warmer atmosphere has a
higher moisture content and can generate stronger storms (IPCC 2012).
More recent climate projections for Malaysia that utilise the CMIP5 suite of GCMs and the IPCC
AR5 Representative Concentration Pathways are not publicly available. Existing projections by
MOSTI and NAHRIM are outdated – from 2009 and 2011 – respectively. Individual studies
focusing on projections from a single GCM or RCM are available, but ranges of projected
changes and uncertainty in the projections cannot be characterised from these studies –
projections from multiple models are needed.
Higher resolution, more current projections from a multi-model ensemble set for peninsular
Malaysia and the greater KL region are expected to be publicly released in mid- to late-2017.
Malaysia is participating in the Southeast Asia Regional Downscaling/ Coordinated Regional
Climate Downscaling Experiment (SEACLID-CORDEX). SEACLID is downscaling a number of
CMIP5 GCMs for Southeast Asia at a spatial resolution of 25km x 25km. The total ensemble
consists of 14 different CMIP5 GCMs downscaled using 6 RCMs, for the representative
concentration pathways RCP 4.5 (assumes emissions stabilize) and RCP 8.5 (assumes emissions
continue to grow). The SEACLID-CORDEX projections will allow for greater characterisation of
the strengths and biases of individual models, multi-model projection spread (uncertainty) and
trends for different climate variables. It is expected that more information about potential
changes in precipitation, particularly extremes, will be available.
Figure: SEACLID/CORDEX modeling domain. High resolution projections from multiple models
will be available for the region in the dotted lines in mid- to late-2017. Source:
http://www.ukm.my/seaclid-cordex/.
40
References
Ahmat H, Yahaya AS, et al (2015). PM10 Analysis for Three Industrialized Areas using Extreme Value.
Sains Malaysiana, 44(2), 175-185.
Amirebhrahimi S, Rajabifard A, et al (2015). A Data Model for Integrating GIS and BIM for Assessment and
3D Visualisation of Flood Damage to a Building. In B. Veenedal, and A. Kealy (Ed.), Proceedings
of Research@Locate in Conjunction with the Annual Conference on Spacial Information in
Australia and New Zealand, Vol-1323, pp. 78-89.
Bahrum NA and Malek MA (2016). Hydrological Analysis on Semi-Urban and Urban Areas in Kajang.
International Journal of New Technology and Research, 2(1), 58-66.
Becker A (2008). Wood Frame Building Response to Rapid Onset Flooding. Vancouver: Master's Thesis
at the University of British Columbia.
Bitsuamlak G, Dagnew AK, et al (2010). Evaluation of wind loads on solar panel models using CFD.
Presented at: The Fifth International Symposium on Computational Wind Engineering.
Carbon Trust (2015). MBPJ Low Carbon City Action Plan, Majlis Bandaraya Petaling Jaya 2015 – 2030.
Majlis Bandaraya Petaling Jaya and Carbon Trust.
Carbon Trust (2015a). Majlis Bandaraya Petaling Jaya Carbon Management Plan 2015-2020. Majlis
Bandaraya Petaling Jaya and Carbon Trust.
Carbonn Climate Registry (2017). Petaling Jaya City Council Malaysia Report. Retrieved 31 January 2017
from: http://carbonn.org/data/report/commitments/?tx_datareport_pi1%5Buid%5D=644
Cardell C, Benavente D, et al (2008). Weatherings of limestone buildings material by mixed sulfate
solutions. Characterization of stone microstructure, reation product and decay forms. Materials
Characterization, 59(10), 1371-1385.
Carvalho M (24 May, 2016). RM92 Mil beef-up for KL flood mitigation system. Retrieved from The Star
Online: http://tinyurl.com/gw3z3js
CEDMHA (2016). Malaysia: Disaster Management Reference Handbook. Hawaii: Center for Excellence in
Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance.
Chariam N (14 November 2016). 13 DBKL projects to prevent flash floods. Retrieved from Free Malaysia
Today: http://tinyurl.com/gvtgpke
Chaturvedi RK, Joshi J, et al (2012). Multi-model climate change projections for India under
representative concentration pathways. Current Science 103(7), 791-802.
Cheung J and Liu CH (2011). CFD simulations of Natural ventilation behaviour in high-rise buildings in
regular and staggered arrangements at various spacings. Energy and Buildings, 43, 1149-1158.
Ch'ng B (25 February, 2014). New buildings must comply with criteria to get approval. Retrieved 5
December 2016 from The Star Online: http://tinyurl.com/z55yxyp
Choi G, Collins D, et al (2009). Changes in means and extreme events of temperature and precipitation
in the Asi-Pacific Network region 1955-2007. International Journal of Climatology, 29, 19061925.
Chow MF, Haris H and Sidek LM (2016). Analysis of Rainfall Trend and Temporal Patterns: A Case Study
for Penchala River Basin, Kuala Lumpur. In Tahir W, et al (Eds), ISFRAM. Singapore: Springer
Science+Business Media.
Climate-Data.org (2016). Climate Kuala Lumpur 1982-2012. Accessed 7 December 2016.
Coalition for Good Governance (2008). Feedback on Draft Kuala Lumpur City Plan 2020. Retrieved 12
December, 2016, from Coalition for Good Governance Website: http://tinyurl.com/j522u7m
Creutzig F, Agoston P, et al (2016). Urban infrastructure choices structure climate solutions. Nature
Climate Change, 6, 1054-1056.
41
Dash SK, Kulkarni MA, et al. (2009). Changes in the characteristics of rain events in India. Journal of
Geophysical Research 114, D10109.
DBKL (2004). KL Structure Plan 2020. Retrieved 2 January 2017 from
http://www.dbkl.gov.my/pskl2020/english/index.htm
DBKL consultation interview (24 October 2016). Plan8 Risk Consulting Ltd: Interviewer
DBKL consultation interview (19 November 2016). Plan8 Risk Consulting Ltd: Interviewer
DBKL consultation interview (19 January 2017). Plan8 Risk Consulting Ltd: Interviewer
DBKL City Planning Department consultation interview (2 November, 2016). Plan8 Risk Consulting Ltd:
Interviewer
DBKL (2017). DBKL History. Retrieved 31 January, 2017, from DBKL Website:
http://www.dbkl.gov.my/index.php?option=com_contentandview=articleandid=39andItemid=174a
ndlang=en
DBKL (2017a). FAQ: Kuala Lumpur City Plan 2020. Retrieved January 19, 2017, from Dewan Bandaraya
Kuala Lumpur Website:
http://www.dbkl.gov.my/index.php?option=com_contentandview=articleandid=288andItemid=68
8andlang=en
Demuzere M, Orru K, et al (2014). Mitigating and adapting to climate change: Multi-functional and multiscale assessment of green urban infrastructure. Journal of Environmental Management, 146,
107-115.
Department of Irrigation and Drainage (2011). Volume 14: Selangor, Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur and
Putrajaya. In: Review of the National Water Resources Study (2000-2050) and Formulation of
National Water Resources Policy. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment: Malaysia.
Department of Statistics (nd). Malaysia at a Glance: Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur. Retrieved 31
January, 2017, from Department of Statistics Website:
https://www.dosm.gov.my/v1/index.php?r=column/coneandmenu_id=bjRlZXVGdnBueDJKY1BPW
EFPRlhIdz09
Department of Statistics Malaysia (2013). Population Distribution by Local Authority Areas and Mukims
2010. DOSM: Kuala Lumpur.
Du Y, Zeng Y, et al (2016). Guangdong. In R. Nadin, S. Opitz-Stapleton, and Y. Xu, Climate Risk and
Resilience in China. London and New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis.
Efficient Windows Collaborative (nd). Window Technologies: Low-E Coatings. Retrieved 5 January, 2017,
from Efficient Windows Collaborative: http://www.efficientwindows.org/lowe.php
Elsayed I (2012). Mitigation of the Urban Heat Island of the city of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Middle-East
Journal of Scientific Research, 11(11), 1602-1613.
EPU (2015). Eleventh Malaysia Plan 2016-2020: Anchoring Growth on People. Kuala Lumpur: Economic
Planning Unit.
Erickson P and Tempest K (2015). Keeping Cities Green: Avoiding Carbon Lock-In Due to Urban
Development. Working Paper No. 2015-11. Massachusetts: Stockholm Environment Institute: U.S.
Centre.
FEMA (1999). Protecting Building Utilities from Flood Damage: Principles and Pratice for the Design and
Construction of Flood Resistant Building Utility Systems. In FEMA P-348 Ed 1.
Friend R, Thinphanga T, et al (2014). Urban Transformations and changing patterns of local risk: Lessons
from Mekong Region. Int. Jn. of Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment, 6(1), 30-43.
GBI (2016). Green Building Index Brochure. Retrieved 3 February 2017 from:
http://new.greenbuildingindex.org/Files/Resources/GBI%20Documents/GBI%20Explanatory%20
Brochure%202016%20V1.1.pdf
42
GBI (2017). Classification. Retrieved 30 January 2017 from:
http://new.greenbuildingindex.org/how/classification
GBI (2017). Executive Summary. Retrieved 29 January 2017 from:
http://new.greenbuildingindex.org/organisation/summary
GBI (2017). Tools. Retrieved 30 January 2017 from: http://new.greenbuildingindex.org/how/tools
Accessed 3rd February 2017
Ghaffarianhoseini, A, et al (2016). Exploring advantages and challenges of double-skin facades (DSFs).
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 60, 1052-1065.
Global Competitiveness and Risk Team (2016). The Global Risks Report 2016, 11th Edition. Geneva: World
Economic Forum.
Gorsevski V, Taha H, et al (1998). Air Pollution Prevention through Urban Heat Island Mitigation: And
update on the Urban Heat Island Pilot Project. ACEEE Proceedings of the 1998 Summer Study
on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, 9, 23-32.
Government of Malaysia (1982 and 1984). Federal Territory (Planning) Act of of 1982, Act 267.
Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment (2016). The Global Climate
Legislation Study: Malaysia. Retrieved 29 January 2017 from:
http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/legislation/countries/malaysia/
Guha-Sapir D, Below R, and Hoyois P (2017). EM-DAT: THe CRED/OFDA International Disaster Database.
Belgium: Universite Catholique de Louvain. Retrieved from www.emdat.be
Haggag MA (2007). Building Skin and energy efficiency in a hot climate with particular reference to
Dubai, UAE. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 105, 287-297.
Hall K (2011). Natural building stone composed of light-transmissive minerals: impacts on thermal
gradients, weathering and microbial colonization. A preliminary study, tentative interpretations,
and future directions. Environmental Earth Sciences, 62(2), 289-297.
Haw LC, Salleh E and Jones P (2006). Renewable Energy Policy and Initiatives in Malaysia. International
Journal on Sustainable Tropical Design, Research and Practice, 1(1), 32-39.
Holmes SH (2016). Energy Model Validation for Indoor Occupant Heat Stress Analysis. Presented at:
ASHRAE and IBPSA-USA Simbuild 2016. Building Performance Modelling Conference.
Houska CM (2016). Advances in designing stainless stell second-skin facades. In Y. M. Liu, D. Fu, and e.
al (Ed.), Civil Engineering and Urban Planning IV: Proceedings of the 4th International
Conference on Civil Engineering and Urban Planning (pp. 225-230). London: Taylor and Francis
Group.
Huang B, Polanski S and Cubasch U (2015). The assessment of precipitation climatology in an ensemble
of CORDEX-East Asia regional climate simulations. Climate Research 64, 141-158.
Inside Malaysia (July 2012). Greater Kuala Lumpur/Klang Valley: Overview. Inside Malaysia, pp. 61-63.
IPCC (2012). Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change
Adaptation. In: Field CB, Barros V, and et al (Eds), Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
IPCC (2014). Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability.
Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge and New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Islam R, Kamaruddin R, et al (2016). A Review on Mechanism of Flood Disaster Management in Asia.
International Review of Management and Marketing, 6(1), 29-52.
Jemaat H (2016). Government Facilitation and Incentives for Green Building. Presented at the GBI
Roadshow 2016. MIDA: Kuala Lumpur.
43
JPBD (2007). Rancangan Struktur Negeri Selangor 2020: Perancangan Mampan Selangor Sejahtera.
Shah Alam: Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa Selangor.
JPBD (2010). National Physical Plan 2. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Housing and Local Government.
JPBD (nd). Structure Plan. Retrieved 1 February 2017 from: http://www.townplan.gov.my
JPBD (2017). Agenda 21 Selangor. Retrieved 8 February 2017 from:
http://jpbdselangor.gov.my/en/pembangunan-mampan-perkhidmatanmenu-292/agenda21selangor-perkhidmatanmenu-293.html
Kandar MZ and Rehmani B (2010). The Future of Double Skin Façade Design and Installation in
Malaysia’s Building Industry. In: Proceedings of the International Conference of Construction
Industry 2009.
KeTTHA (2008). National Renewable Energy Policy and Action Plan. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Energy,
Green Technology and Water.
KeTTHA (2009). Incentives for Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency and Green Buildings in Malaysia.
Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water.
KeTTHA (2011). Low Carbon Cities Framework and Assessment System. Retrieved from
http://lccftrack.greentownship.my/files/LCCF-Book.pdf
KNMI Climate Change Atlas (2017). Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Institute.
http://climexp.knmi.nl/plot_atlas_form.py. Accessed 13 December 2016.
Koh K, et al (Eds) (2016). Adaptation to Climate Change: ASEAN and comparative Experiences. Singaore:
World Scientific Publishing.
Kuala Lumpur Tourism Bureau (nd). History of Kuala Lumpur. Retrieved 13 January 2017 from:
http://www.visitkl.gov.my/visitklv2/index.php?r=column/coneandid=6
Lebel L, Li L, et al (2012). Mainstreaming climate change adaptation into development planning.
Bangkok: Adaptation Knowledge Platform and Stockholm Environment Institute.
Lim J (2017). DBKL AIms to Reduce Utility Bill. Retrieved 2 February 2017 from: http://tinyurl.com/z5n3atv
Limsakul A, Limjirakan S and Sriburi T (2009). Assessment of extreme weather events along the coastal
areas of Thailand. Presented at Eigth Conference on Coastal Atmospheric and Oceanic
th
Prediction and Processes of the 89 American Meteorological Society Annual Meeting.
Ling O, Ting K, et al (2010). Urban Growth and Air Quality in Kuala Lumpur City, Malaysia. Environment
Asia, 3(2), 123-128.
Locatelli B, Fedele G, et al (2016). Synergies between adaptation and mitigation in climate change
finance. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 8(1), 112-128.
Lstiburek J (2006). Flood and Hurricane Resistant Buildings. Building Science Digest, 111.
Maizura I, Nadin R and Varming M (2016). UK-Malaysia Roundtable on Comprehensive Climate-Disaster
Risk and National Economic Planning: Roundtable Proceedings and Recommendations. Kuala
Lumpur: Plan8 Risk Consulting Ltd.
Maulud AL and Saidi (2012). The Malaysian Fifth Fuel Policy: Re-Strategising the Malaysian Renewable
Energy Initiatives. Energy Policy, 48, 88-92.
MBPJ (2015). Kenyataan Akhbar: Cadangan mengadakan mesyuarat jawatankuasa siasatan tempatan
dan pedengaran (JKSTP) bagi (Pengubahan 2) RTPJ 1 dan (Pengubahan 1) RTPJ. Petaling Jaya:
Majlis Bandaraya Petaling Jaya.
MBPJ (2016). Application Guidelines and Form of Assessment Tax Rebate Scheme for House Owners:
Low Carbon Green City Petaling Jaya 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2017 from:
http://eps.mbpj.gov.my/web2016/RebatCukai2016English.pdf
MBPJ consultation interview (1 November 2016). Plan8 Risk Consulting Ltd: Interviewer
44
MBPJ (2017a). MBPJ Background. Retrieved 31 January, 2017, from MBPJ Website:
http://www.mbpj.gov.my/en/mbpj/profile/background
MBPJ (2017b). MBPJ Skuad Pantas Facebook Page. Retrieved 23 January, 2017, from
https://www.facebook.com/Pantas-MBPJ-1742169909381336/about/
MBPJ (2017c). Sustainable PJ 2030. Retrieved 24 January, 2017, from
http://www.sustainablepj2030.com/index.php
Md Noh MN (2008). Role of MSMA in Promoting Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems in Malaysia.
Putrajaya: Presented at the 3rd WEPA International Forum on Water Environmental Governance
in Asia 23-24 October 2008.
MECF (nd). Cause and Effect Investigations: Façade Damage Caused by Rust Jacking. Accessed 17 Jan
17 from https://sites.google.com/site/metropolitanenvironmental/cause-and-effect-investigationsfacade-damage-caused-by-rust-jacking
Mohd Jafar MA (18 June 2010). Garis Panduan perancangan: Pembangunan Di Kawasan Bukit and Tanah
Tinggi Negeri Selangor. Presentation at Seminar Pelaksanaan Garis Panduan Perancangan
Pembangunan Di Kawasan Bukit and Tanah Tinggi Negeri Selangor. Retrieved 8 December
2016 from http://tinyurl.com/jsrf39z.
MPAJ consultation interview (5 October, 2016). Plan8 Risk Consulting Ltd: Interviewer
MPAJ (2016a). MPAJ's Slope Maintenance Unit Document. Retrieved 13 December, 2016, from MPAJ
Website: http://www.mpaj.gov.my/sites/default/files/ppr_mpaj_2012-2016_003.pdf
MPAJ (2016b). Rancangan Tempatan Majlis Perbandaran Ampang Jaya (Pengubahan 2) 2020: Strategi
dan Candangan Pembangunan. Ampang Jaya: Majlis Perbandaran Ampang Jaya.
MPAJ (2017). MPAJ Background and Statistics. Retrieved 31 January, 2017, from MPAJ Website:
http://www.mpaj.gov.my
MPAJ (nd). MPAJ's Risk Management Plan (2012-2016). Retrieved on 14 December 2016 from:
http://www.mpaj.gov.my/sites/default/files/ppr_selection_1_44.pdf
Nanduri RK, Suresh B, et al (2013). Optimum Position of Outrigger system for High-Rise Reinforced
Concrete Buildings under Wind and Earthquake Loadings. American Journal of Engineering
Research, 2(8), 76-89.
Nikolowski J, Goldberg V, et al (2013). Analysing the vulnerability of buildings to climate change: Summer
heat and flooding. Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 22(2), 145-153.
Nothern Institute of Applied Climate Science (2017). Carbon Sequestration. Retrieved 2 February 2017,
from United States Department of Agriculture Website:
https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/niacs/carbon/forests/carbon_sequestration/
NRE (2010). MALAYSIA: Second National Communication to the UNFCCC. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment.
NRE (2010). National Policy on Climate Change. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment.
NRE (2015). Intended Nationally Determined Contribution of the Government of Malaysia. Bonn: United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
NYC Department of City Planning (2013). Coastal Climate Resilience: Designing for Flood Risk. New York:
Department of City Planning.
Opitz-Stapleton S, Sabbag L, et al (2016). Heat index trends and climate change implications for
occupational heat exposure in Da Nang, Vietnam. Climate Services, 60, 41-51.
Pemandu (2011). Economic Transformation Programme Annual Report 2011. NKEA: Greater Kuala
Lumpur/Klang Valley. Kuala Lumpur: Pemandu.
45
Pemandu (2012). Economic Transformation Programme Annual Report 2012 NKEA: Greater Kuala
Lumpur/Klang Valley. Kuala Lumpur: Pemandu.
Pemandu (2014). Economic Transformation Programme Annual Report 2014. Kuala Lumpur: Pemandu.
Pemandu (2017). EPP5: Revitalising the Klang and Gombak Rivers into a Heritage and Commercial
Centre. Retrieved 24 January, 2017, from http://tinyurl.com/jov7bl6
Pemandu (2017). EPP6: Greening Greater Kuala Lumpur to Ensure Residents Enjoy Sufficient Green
Space. Retrieved 1 February, 2017, from: http://tinyurl.com/zwmosm5
Pemandu (2017). Overview of ETP. Retrieved 1 February, 2017, from Economic Tranformation Programme
Website: http://etp.pemandu.gov.my/About_ETP-@-Overview_of_ETP.aspx
Pemandu (nd). Overview of National Key Economic Areas. Retrieved 20th January, 2017, from Economic
Transformation Programme Website: http://etp.pemandu.gov.my/Sectors_in_Focus-@Overview_of_NKEAs.aspx
Pour SH, Harun SB and Shahid S (2014). Genetic Programming for the Downscaling of Extreme Rainfall
Events on the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Atmosphere 5(4), 914-936.
Rahman BA (2012). Issues of Disaster Management Preparedness: A Case Study of Directive 20 of
National Security Council, Malaysia. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3(5),
85-92.
Salleh NHM, Hasan H and Kassim S (2015). Trends in Temperature Extremes across Malaysia. Advances
in Environmental Biology 9(27), 174-181.
Sang YW, Yik DJ, et al (2015). Analysis on the Long Term Trends of Consecutive Dry and Wet Days and
Extreme Rainfall Amounts in Malaysia. Research Publication No 2/2015. Malaysian
Meteorological Department.
SEDA (2017). Overview of the Fee-in Tariff (FiT) System in Malaysia. Retrieved 1 February, 2017, from
Sustainable Energy Authority Website: http://tinyurl.com/jt7eqtr
Shalini R (1 October 2015). Gombak Ridge in pictures. Retrieved 25 January, 2017, from The Star Online:
http://tinyurl.com/h9xvlct
Solutions CF (2017). Targets and actions under the Copenhagen Accords. Retrieved 24 January 2017,
from: https://www.c2es.org/international/negotiations/cop-15/copenhagen-accord-targets
SPAD (2013). Greater Kuala Lumpur/Klang Valley Land Public Transport Master Plan. Kuala Lumpur:
Suruhanjaya Pengangkutan Darat. Retrieved 8 December 2016 from
http://www.spad.gov.my/sites/default/files/new-land-public-transpor-master-plan.pdf
SPDBKL (2017). Retrieved 24 January, 2017, from Skuad Penyelamat Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur
Website: http://skuadpenyelamatdbkl.blogspot.my/
Suhaila J, Deni SM, et al (2010). Trends in Peninsular Malaysia Rainfall Data During the Southwest
Monsoon and Northeast Monsoon Seasons: 1975-2004. Sains Malaysiana 39(4), 533-542.
Syafrina AH, Zalina MD and Juneng L (2015). Historical trend of hourly extreme rainfall in Peninsular
Malasia. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 120, 259-285.
Tan LM (2009). The Development of GBI Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Green Building Index.
Tan V (1 December 2015). MBPJ sets up disaster informaton centre. Retrieved 7 January, 2017, from The
Star Online: http://tinyurl.com/zahy9gg
Tangang FT, Juneng L, et al (2012). Climate Change and Variability over Malaysia: Gaps in Science and
Research Information. Sains Malaysiana, 41(11), 1355-1366.
Tubby KV and Webber JF (2010). Pests and diseases threatening urban trees under a changing climate.
Forestry 83(4), 451-459.
46
UNDP (2017). Green Technology Application for the Development of Low Carbon Cities (GTALCC).
Retrieved 2 February 2017 from: http://tinyurl.com/j7wkqlq
UNISDR (2012). How to Make Cities More Resilient: A Handbook for local Goverment Leaders. Geneva:
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. Retrieved from
http://www.unisdr.org/files/26462_handbookfinalonlineversion.pdf
UTM (2016). Towards Engaging Kuala Lumpur Low Carbon Society Blueprint 2030: UTM Runs 2-Day
Focus Group Discussion with DBKL. Retrieved 21 December, 2016, from University Teknologi
Malaysia Website: http://tinyurl.com/hsh3kke
Weston T, Minnich L, et al (2010). Evaluation of Cladding and Water-Resistive Barrier Performance in hotHumid Climates Using a Real-Weather Real-Time Test Facility. Proceedings of the Thermal
Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of Whole Buildings XI International Conference. Building
Science Corporation: Massachusetts.
Westra S, Fowler HJ, et al (2014). Future changes to the intensity and frequency of short-duration
extreme rainfall. Reviews of Geophysics 10.1002/2014RG000464.
Wong PM (28 March 2014). Making high-risk slopes safer. Retrieved from The Star Online:
http://tinyurl.com/z3loagr
World Meteorological Organization (2016). Climate Normals Kuala Lumpur/Subang 1961-1990.
Zakaria NA, Ghani A, et al (2004). MSMA - A New Urban Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia.
Advances in Hydro-Science and -Engineering, 6.
47