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Chapter 10 Personality Module 10.1 The Psychodynamic Perspective Module 10.1 Preview Questions What are the three levels of consciousness in Freud’s theory of the mind? What are the structures of personality in Freud’s theory? What are psychological defense mechanisms? Module 10.1 Preview Questions (Cont’d) What are the five states of psychosexual development in Freud’s theory? What are some of the major contributions of other psychodynamic theorists? What Is Personality? The relatively stable set of psychological characteristics and behavior patterns that: Make individuals unique Account for the consistency of their action over time Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Humans must control their sexual and aggressive instincts Channel instincts in socially appropriate ways Theory accounts for how mind balances conflicting demands of instinct and social acceptability Figure 10.1: Levels of Consciousness in Freud’s Theory Structure of Personality Id Unconscious drives and instincts Follows the pleasure principle Ego Follows the reality principle Balancing id’s demands with social approval Superego Moral guardian, conscience May impose self-punishment, guilt, shame Defense Mechanisms Used to prevent anxiety-evoking ideas or impulses from entering conscious awareness Examples: Repression Denial Reaction formation Rationalization Projection Sublimation Regression Displacement Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development Personality develops through five psychosexual stages of development. Characterized by how child seeks physical pleasure from erogenous zones Basic life functions viewed as being “sexual” Conflicts emerge during each stage. Can lead to the development of fixations Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development Oral Erogenous zone is the mouth Too little/much gratification can lead to oral fixations Anal Stage: birth to 12–18 months old Stage: ages 18–36 months Erogenous zone is the anal cavity Sexual pleasure through the ability to control elimination Conflict arises over issue of toilet training Anal-retentive vs. anal-expulsive personality Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development (Cont’d) Phallic Stage: ages 3–6 years Erogenous zone is the phallic region. Core conflict is the Oedipus complex. Freud’s followers called female version of conflict the Electra complex. Boys develop castration anxiety. Girls experience penis envy. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development (Cont’d) Latent Stage: ages 6–12 years Sexual impulses remain dormant. Genital Stage: puberty to adulthood Attraction to opposite gender Sexual energies expressed through sexual intercourse, marriage, child bearing Other Psychodynamic Approaches The theorists who followed in Freud’s footsteps are called neo-Freudians Less emphasis on sex and aggression Greater emphasis on social relationships, ego, concept of self Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology Also believed in role of unconscious conflicts on behavior Greater emphasis on present experiences Personal unconscious consists of repressed memories and impulses Collective unconscious contains archetypes (e.g., God, hero, mother) Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology Emphasis on the unique potential of each individual Conscious experience plays important role in personality Role of the creative self Inferiority complex and the drive for superiority Karen Horney: An Early Voice in Feminist Psychology Criticized Freud’s view of female development Emphasized role of social and cultural forces Importance of parent-child relationships Basic anxiety Basic hostility Introduced “womb envy” Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspective Contributions Detailed and comprehensive theory of personality Awareness of unconscious drives, impulses Criticisms To much importance on sexual and aggressive drives Too little emphasis on social relationships Lack of evidence and questions of validity Difficult to test scientifically Module 10.2 The Trait Perspective Module 10.2 Preview Questions What are the three types of traits in Allport’s trait model? What was Cattell’s view on the organization of traits? What three traits are represented in Eysenck’s model of personality? What is the “Big Five” trait model of personality? What role do genes play in personality? Trait Perspective Personality consists of relatively enduring personal characteristics called traits. Trait theorists focus on: How people differ in traits How traits can be measured How traits are organized Gordon Allport: A Hierarchy of Traits Personality traits are inherited but are influenced by experience Hierarchy of traits: Cardinal traits Central traits Secondary traits Hans Eysenck: A Simpler Trait Model Described personality using three major traits: Introversion-Extraversion Neuroticism Psychoticism Four basic personality types Biological differences responsible for individual variations in personality traits Continue Five Factor Model of Personality: The “Big Five” 1. Neuroticism 2. Extraversion 3. Openness 4. Agreeableness 5. Conscientiousness Genetic Basis of Traits Heredity plays important role in shaping personality Focus is on understanding the interactions of biology and environment Evaluating the Trait Perspective Contributions: Has intuitive appeal Led to the development of personality tests Drawbacks: Circular reasoning – labels rather than explains behavior Behavior may not be as stable across time and situations as assumed by trait theorists Emerging view is that behavior involves an interaction between traits and situational factors Module 10.3 The Social-Cognitive Perspective Module 10.3 Preview Questions What are expectancies and subjective values? What is reciprocal determinism? What are situation and person variables? Traditional Behavioral View Personality is shaped by environmental influences Personality consists of the sum total of an individual’s learned behavior Behavior is learned on the basis of classical and operant conditioning Social-Cognitive Theory To explain behavior, must take into account: Cognitive aspects of behavior, such as expectancies about outcomes of behavior Social aspects of behavior, such as imitation Personality comprises both: Learned behavior The ways we think about ourselves and our world Julian Rotter: The Locus of Control Explaining, predicting behavior depends on knowing individual’s: Reinforcement history Expectancies Subjective values People acquire general expectancies about ability to obtain reinforcements. External vs. internal locus of control Albert Bandura Model of reciprocal determinism Emphasized role of observational learning Distinguished between two types of expectancies: Outcome expectations Efficacy expectations Continue Walter Mischel Behavior is influenced by: Situational variables Person variables • • • • • Expectancies Subjective values Competencies Encoding strategies Self-regulatory systems and plans Possible interaction between emotions and personal variables Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective Contributions: Improved understanding of how behavior is influenced by environmental factors Broadened learning theory to include cognitive influences View of people as active seekers and interpreters of information Criticisms: Limited view of personality Fails to account for unconscious influences, heredity Too little focus on subjective experience Module 10.4 The Humanistic Perspective Module 10.4 Preview Questions What How is self theory? do collectivistic and individualistic cultures view the concept of self? Carl Rogers: The Importance of Self We possess an inner drive to strive toward self-actualization Personality expressed through the conscious experience of directing self toward fulfilling one’s unique potential Carl Rogers’s Self Theory Self as center of the human experience One primary function of the self is the development of self-esteem Unconditional vs. conditional positive regard Self-esteem results from how close one comes to meeting one’s self-ideals Developed client-centered therapy Abraham Maslow The innate drive toward self-actualization shapes personality Drive motivates us to develop our unique potentials as human beings Humanists view personality as a continuing process of personal growth and realization Important to be aware of and accept all parts of one self Culture and Self-Identity Collectivistic Cultures: emphasis on people’s social roles and obligations Values group goals over individual goals Individualistic Cultures: emphasis on individual identity and personal accomplishments Values independence and self-sufficiency Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective Contributions: Profound impact on society Focused attention on need to understand subjective or conscious experience of individuals Method of client-centered therapy remains highly influential Helped restore concept of self to psychology Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective (Cont’d) Criticisms: Difficult to scientifically study conscious experience Possible negative consequences from emphasis on self-fulfillment (e.g., self indulgent and self absorbed) Does drive for self-actualization really exist? Module 10.5 Personality Tests Module 10.5 Preview Questions What are self-report personality inventories? What are projective tests of personality? Measuring Personality Historical Examination of facial features Phrenology Modern Attempts: Strategies: Self-report personality inventories Projective tests Self-Report Personality Inventories Objective tests: Can be scored objectively Construction based on research Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): Constructed to help diagnose mental disorders Raw scores converted into standard scores Evaluation of Self-Report Personality Tests Strengths: Relatively inexpensive to administer and score People may be more willing to disclose personal information May be used to predict wide range of behavior Weakness: Susceptible to potential response biases Projective Tests Person is presented with unstructured or ambiguous stimuli Assumption that people “project” needs, drives, motives through their responses Examiner must interpret person’s responses Evaluation of Projective Tests Drawbacks: Scoring of responses based on subjective impressions Problem of stimulus pull Questions about overall validity and utility Proponents argue they can yield valuable information about personality Application: Module 10.6 Building Self-Esteem Building Self-Esteem Acquire competencies Set realistic, achievable goals Enhance self-efficacy expectations Create a sense of meaningfulness in your life Challenge perfectionist expectations Challenge the need for constant approval