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10/18 • I will be passing out your scantrons for Chapter 3 & 4 Test today. • Timeline projects due tomorrow! • I will show you how to upload your project, but you can also turn in a paper copy, or email it if you can’t get upload it. 10/22 • Here is your freebie for Learning. 1. A) B) C) D) You always rattle the box of dog biscuits before giving your dog a treat. As you do so, your dog salivates. Rattling the box is a _______________; your dog’s salivation is a ____________. CS; CR CS; UR US; CR US; UR Chapter 8 Learning Long lasting change in behavior due to experience. Associated Learning • We learn by association • Simpler animals can learn simple associations • Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and consequence (operant conditioning) • Examples: Bread, sea snail, seal Gray wolves Only 11% of reintroduced species make it Classical Conditioning Conditioning is the process of learning associations. • Classic Conditioning we learn to associate to stimuli and thus anticipate events. Ex. Flash of lighting signals an impending crack of thunder. • Ivan Pavlov (laid the foundation) and then John B. Watson • Psychology should be limited to OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR • Behaviorism-The view that psychology should be an objective science (agree) that studies behavior without reference to mental processes (disagree). • Click above to see about Pavlov Ivan Pavlov • Russian Physician • Nobel Peace Prize in 1904 • Studied Digestion of Dogs. • Dogs would salivate before they were given food (triggered by sounds, lights etc…) • Dogs must have LEARNED to salivate. Think About…. 1. What is the unconditioned response? Food in the mouth, because food in the mouth automatically (unconditionally) triggers a dog’s salivary reflex. 2. What is the unconditional stimulus? The food 3. What is the conditioned response? Salvation in response to the tone. The salvation in response to the tone was CONDITIONAL upon the dog’s learning the association between the tone and the food. 4. What is the conditioned stimulus? The previously meaningless tone Classical Conditioning • Automatic • Biologically adaptive • Start with an unconditioned relationship. • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)- something that elicits a natural, reflexive response. • *Unlearned • Unconditioned Response (UCR)- response to the UCS. • Next you find a neutral stimulus (something that by itself elicits no response). • You present the stimulus with the UCS a whole bunch of times. • After a while, the body begins to link together the neutral stimulus with the UCS. • Learning takes places when the previously neutral stimulus elicits a response. • At this point the neutral stimulus is called the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned response becomes the conditioned response (CR). *Conditioned=learned Ivan Pavlov • Pavlov and his associates when on to study the causes and effects of classical conditioning. • Learned through experiments to identify 5 major conditioning responses: Acquisition, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination. Classical Conditioning • • • • • • • Learning exists because the CS is linked to the UCS. This is called ACQUISITION. The initial stage in classical conditioning. Half a second works best to link the UCS and CS Classical Conditioning is biologically adaptive (prepares you for good or bad events) Acquisition does not last forever. When the CS is no longer associated with the UCS, we have EXTINCTION.- the diminished responding that occurs when the CS (tone) no longer signals an impending US (food). Timing Matters • Delayed Conditioning: present CS, while CS is still there, present UCS. • Trace Conditioning: present CS, short break, then present UCS. • Simultaneous Conditioning: CS and UCS are presented at the same time. • Backward Conditioning: UCS is presented before the CS Spontaneous Recovery • The reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause. • Extinction is suppressing the CR rather than eliminating it • Sometimes, after extinction, the CR still randomly appears after the CS is presented. Generalization and Discrimination Generalization • Something is so similar to the CS that you get a CR. • Ex. Dog may salivate when rubbed and scratched • Can be adaptive: toddlers taught to fear cars will also fear trucks and motorcycles Discrimination • Something so different to the CS so you do not get a CR. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Generalization vs. Discrimination Instructions: Below are 4 everyday situations in which some form of operant behavior is occurring. After reading each scenario, indicate whether it is an instance of generalization or discrimination. Situation 1: We stop our vehicles when the traffic light is red, but continue through the light when it is green. Situation 2: We sit quietly in our seats during class examinations, church services, theatrical presentations, and funerals. Situation 3: We raise our hands before speaking in class but not while talking to a friend or while at a party. Situation 4: We put our feet up on our desk and coffee table at home, but not on our grandparents' coffee table. Situation 5: We mistake a stranger for a friend of ours. Situation 6: We answer the doorbell when it was really the phone that was ringing. A Conditioned Response Over Time Classical Conditioning and Humans • John Watson and Rosalie Rayner brought Classical Conditioning to psychology with his Baby Albert experiment in 1920. • “Little Albert” is conditioned to fear white rats. • Ethical? • Contrasts Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis • Where is Little Albert today…..phobia of white rats?? Used Aversive Conditioning Classical Conditioning: Human Health, Well Being, and Trauma • Former crack cocaine users often feel a craving when they again encounter cues (people, places) associated with previous highs. Drug counselors advise addicts to steer clear of settings and paraphernalia associated with the euphoria of previous drug use. • Trauma p. 325. Taste Aversions • If you become sick after eating an unusual food you can develop an aversion to that food • Even when food and sickness are hours apart. • Food must be salient (noticeable.) • Can happen after one pairing Garcia and Koelling Study Studied rats and how they make associations. Found that rats would avoid drinking water from plastic bottles in radiation chambers (linking sickness with plastic bottles?) • Experimented giving rats a particular taste, sight, or sound (CS) and later also gave them radiation /drugs (US) that led to nausea. • Found two things: 1. Even if sickened as late as several hours after tasting a particular novel flavor, the rats avoided that flavor. 2. Sickened rats developed aversions to tastes but not sights and sounds. • Some associations seem to be adaptive (favors traits that aid to our survival). • • Operant Conditioning The Learner is NOT passive. Learning based on consequence!!! Behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Classical v. Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Involve acquisition, extinction, Involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination discrimination Respondent Behavior-Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. Ex. Salivating in response to meat Operant Behavior-Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences or rewarding stimuli. Is the organism learning associations between events that it doesn’t control? Is the organism learning associations between its behavior and resulting events? The Law of Effect • Edward Thorndike • Locked cats in a cage • Behavior changes because of its consequences. • Rewards strengthen behavior and recur. • If consequences are unpleasant, the behavior will weaken and become infrequent. • Called the whole process instrumental learning. Click picture to see a better explanation of the Law of Effect. B.F. Skinner • The top dog of Operant Conditioning. • Experiments with pigeons and rats • Used a Skinner Box (Operant Conditioning Chamber) to prove his concepts. Skinner Box Shaping • An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Ex. Billy: Could you tie my shoe? Dad: (continues reading paper) Billy: Dad, I need my shoes tied. Dad: Uh, yeah, just a minute Billy: DADDD! TIE MY SHOES! Dad: How many times have I told you not to whine? Now, which shoe do we do first? How do we actually use Operant Conditioning? Sometimes, we use a process called shaping. Shaping is reinforcing small steps on the way to the desired behavior. To train a dog to get your slippers, you would have to reinforce him in small steps. First, to find the slippers. Then to put them in his mouth. Then Big Bang Theory- Operant Conditioning- to bring them to you and YouTube so on…this is shaping behavior. Reinforces • Anything the INCREASES a behavior. Positive Reinforcement: • The addition of something pleasant. Negative Reinforcement: • The removal of something unpleasant. • Two types of NR • Escape Learning • Avoidance Learning (Getting kicked out of class versus cutting class) Positive or Negative? Putting your seatbelt on. Faking sick to avoid AP Psych class. Studying for a test. Having a headache and taking an aspirin. Breaking out of jail. Getting a kiss for doing the dishes. Primary & Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer • Things that are in themselves rewarding. Secondary (conditioned) Reinforcer • Things we have learned to value. • Money is a special secondary reinforcer called a generalized reinforcer (because it can be traded for just about anything) Token Economy • Every time a desired behavior is performed, a token is given. • They can trade tokens in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers) • Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions and schools. • Rats will not respond to reinforcers that are greatly delayed, but humans will (good grade at the end of the semester, paycheck at the end of the week, title at the end of the season). Reinforcement Schedules How often do you give the reinforcer? Continuous v. Partial Reinforcement • • • • Continuous Reinforce the behavior EVERYTIME the behavior is exhibited. Acquisition comes really fast. But so does extinction. Real life does not give continuous reinforcement. Partial • Reinforce the behavior only SOME of the times it is exhibited. • Acquisition comes more slowly. • But is more resistant to extinction. • FOUR Partial Reinforcement schedules. Ratio Schedules Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio • Provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses. • Ex. Getting Paid after Selling 10 Items. • Provides a reinforcement after a RANDOM number of responses. • Best type • Ex. Fishing, gambling Fixed Ration- She gets a manicure for every 5 pounds she loses. Interval Schedules Fixed Interval • Requires a SET amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement. Variable Interval • Requires a RANDOM amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement. • Produce slow, steady responding Fixed Interval: She gets a manicure for every 7 days she stays on her diet. Effectiveness of reinforcement Reinforcement Schedules Based on Number of necessary responses Predictable Unpredictable (“On the Average”) Based on Time that must first pass Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) 39 Punishment Meant to decrease a behavior. Positive Punishment • Addition of something unpleasant. • Administer an aversive stimulus Ex. Spanking, parking ticket Negative Punishment (Omission Training) • Removal of something pleasant. • Time-out from privileges, revoked driver’s license. Punishment works best when it is immediate Latent Leaning Edward Toleman Three rat experiment. Latent means hidden. Sometimes learning is not immediately evident. • Rats needed a reason to display what they have learned. • • • • Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation • The desire to do something for its own sake (intrinsic) • May get lost with excessive rewards (extrinsic motivationdesire to behave a certain way to earn a reward or avoid punishment) Skinner’s Legacy • Most controversial intellectual figures of the late twentieth century • Insisted that external influences (not internal thoughts and feelings) shape behavior. • Urged the use of operant conditioning to influence behavior at school, work, and home Chaining Behaviors • Subjects are taught a number of behaviors successively in order to get a reward. Click picture to see a rat chaining behaviors. Click to see a cool example of chaining behaviors. Observational Learning • • • • • • • • • Learning by observing others Example: Learning not to touch the stove because you observed your sister get burnt. Modeling-learning behaviors by observing and imitating models. What types of things do imitate or model? Scientists have discovered Mirror neurons- provides a neural basis for observational learning. Albert Bandura and his BoBo Doll We learn through modeling behavior from others. Click pic to see some observational learning. Anti social and pro social influences 1999 Columbine Incident, Gandhi Observational learning + Operant Conditioning = Social Learning Theory Insight Learning • Wolfgang Kohler and his Chimpanzees. • Some animals learn through the “ah ha” experience. Click pic to see insight learning.