Download Chapter_8-Learning

10/18
• I will be passing out your scantrons for
Chapter 3 & 4 Test today.
• Timeline projects due tomorrow!
• I will show you how to upload your project,
but you can also turn in a paper copy, or email it if you can’t get upload it.
10/22
• Here is your freebie for Learning.
1.
A)
B)
C)
D)
You always rattle the box of dog biscuits before giving your dog a treat. As
you do so, your dog salivates. Rattling the box is a _______________;
your dog’s salivation is a ____________.
CS; CR
CS; UR
US; CR
US; UR
Chapter 8
Learning
Long lasting
change in behavior
due to experience.
Associated Learning
• We learn by association
• Simpler animals can learn
simple associations
• Learning that certain events
occur together. The events
may be two stimuli (classical
conditioning) or a response
and consequence (operant
conditioning)
• Examples:
Bread, sea snail, seal
Gray wolves
Only 11% of reintroduced
species make it
Classical Conditioning
Conditioning is the process of learning
associations.
• Classic Conditioning we learn to associate
to stimuli and thus anticipate events.
Ex. Flash of lighting signals an impending
crack of thunder.
• Ivan Pavlov (laid the foundation) and then
John B. Watson
• Psychology should be limited to
OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR
• Behaviorism-The view that psychology
should be an objective science (agree)
that studies behavior without reference
to mental processes (disagree).
•
Click above to see about Pavlov
Ivan Pavlov
• Russian Physician
• Nobel Peace Prize in 1904
• Studied Digestion of
Dogs.
• Dogs would salivate
before they were given
food (triggered by
sounds, lights etc…)
• Dogs must have
LEARNED to salivate.
Think About….
1. What is the unconditioned response?
Food in the mouth, because food in the mouth automatically
(unconditionally) triggers a dog’s salivary reflex.
2. What is the unconditional stimulus?
The food
3. What is the conditioned response?
Salvation in response to the tone. The salvation in response to the tone was
CONDITIONAL upon the dog’s learning the association between the tone
and the food.
4. What is the conditioned stimulus?
The previously meaningless tone
Classical Conditioning
• Automatic
• Biologically adaptive
• Start with an unconditioned
relationship.
• Unconditioned Stimulus
(UCS)- something that elicits
a natural, reflexive response.
• *Unlearned
• Unconditioned Response
(UCR)- response to the UCS.
• Next you find a neutral stimulus (something
that by itself elicits no response).
• You present the stimulus with the UCS a
whole bunch of times.
• After a while, the
body begins to
link together the
neutral stimulus
with the UCS.
• Learning takes places
when the previously
neutral stimulus
elicits a response.
• At this point the
neutral stimulus is
called the conditioned
stimulus (CS) and the
unconditioned
response becomes
the conditioned
response (CR).
*Conditioned=learned
Ivan Pavlov
• Pavlov and his
associates when on to
study the causes and
effects of classical
conditioning.
• Learned through
experiments to identify
5 major conditioning
responses:
Acquisition, spontaneous
recovery, generalization,
and discrimination.
Classical Conditioning
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Learning exists because the CS is linked to
the UCS.
This is called ACQUISITION.
The initial stage in classical conditioning.
Half a second works best to link the UCS
and CS
Classical Conditioning is biologically
adaptive (prepares you for good or bad
events)
Acquisition does not last forever.
When the CS is no longer associated with
the UCS, we have EXTINCTION.- the
diminished responding that occurs when
the CS (tone) no longer signals an
impending US (food).
Timing Matters
• Delayed Conditioning: present CS, while CS is still there,
present UCS.
• Trace Conditioning: present CS, short break, then present
UCS.
• Simultaneous Conditioning: CS and UCS are presented at
the same time.
• Backward Conditioning: UCS is presented before the CS
Spontaneous Recovery
• The reappearance of a weakened
CR after a pause.
• Extinction is suppressing the CR
rather than eliminating it
• Sometimes, after extinction, the
CR still randomly appears after
the CS is presented.
Generalization and
Discrimination
Generalization
• Something is so similar
to the CS that you get a
CR.
• Ex. Dog may salivate
when rubbed and
scratched
• Can be adaptive:
toddlers taught to fear
cars will also fear
trucks and motorcycles
Discrimination
• Something so different
to the CS so you do not
get a CR.
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Generalization vs. Discrimination
Instructions: Below are 4 everyday situations in which some form of operant behavior is occurring. After
reading each scenario, indicate whether it is an instance of generalization or discrimination.
Situation 1:
We stop our vehicles when the traffic light is red, but continue through the light when it is green.
Situation 2:
We sit quietly in our seats during class examinations, church services, theatrical presentations, and
funerals.
Situation 3:
We raise our hands before speaking in class but not while talking to a friend or while at a party.
Situation 4:
We put our feet up on our desk and coffee table at home, but not on our grandparents' coffee table.
Situation 5:
We mistake a stranger for a friend of ours.
Situation 6:
We answer the doorbell when it was really the phone that was ringing.
A Conditioned Response
Over Time
Classical Conditioning and
Humans
• John Watson and Rosalie
Rayner brought Classical
Conditioning to psychology
with his Baby Albert
experiment in 1920.
• “Little Albert” is conditioned
to fear white rats.
• Ethical?
• Contrasts Sigmund Freud and
psychoanalysis
• Where is Little Albert
today…..phobia of white
rats??
Used Aversive Conditioning
Classical Conditioning: Human
Health, Well Being, and Trauma
• Former crack cocaine users often feel a craving
when they again encounter cues (people,
places) associated with previous highs. Drug
counselors advise addicts to steer clear of
settings and paraphernalia associated with the
euphoria of previous drug use.
• Trauma p. 325.
Taste Aversions
• If you become sick
after eating an unusual
food you can develop an
aversion to that food
• Even when food and
sickness are hours
apart.
• Food must be salient
(noticeable.)
• Can happen after one
pairing
Garcia and Koelling Study
Studied rats and how they make associations.
Found that rats would avoid drinking water from plastic
bottles in radiation chambers (linking sickness with
plastic bottles?)
• Experimented giving rats a particular taste, sight, or
sound (CS) and later also gave them radiation /drugs
(US) that led to nausea.
• Found two things:
1. Even if sickened as late as several hours after tasting a
particular novel flavor, the rats avoided that flavor.
2. Sickened rats developed aversions to tastes but not
sights and sounds.
• Some associations seem to be adaptive (favors traits
that aid to our survival).
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Operant Conditioning
The Learner is NOT passive.
Learning based on consequence!!!
Behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or
diminished if followed by a punisher.
Classical v. Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Involve acquisition, extinction,
Involve acquisition, extinction,
spontaneous recovery, generalization, and spontaneous recovery, generalization, and
discrimination
discrimination
Respondent Behavior-Behavior that
occurs as an automatic response to some
stimulus. Ex. Salivating in response to
meat
Operant Behavior-Behavior that operates
on the environment, producing
consequences or rewarding stimuli.
Is the organism learning associations
between events that it doesn’t control?
Is the organism learning associations
between its behavior and resulting
events?
The Law of Effect
• Edward Thorndike
• Locked cats in a cage
• Behavior changes because of its
consequences.
• Rewards strengthen behavior and recur.
• If consequences are unpleasant, the
behavior will weaken and become
infrequent.
• Called the whole process instrumental
learning.
Click picture to see a better
explanation of the Law of Effect.
B.F. Skinner
• The top dog of
Operant Conditioning.
• Experiments with
pigeons and rats
• Used a Skinner Box
(Operant Conditioning
Chamber) to prove his
concepts.
Skinner Box
Shaping
• An operant conditioning
procedure in which reinforcers
guide behavior toward closer and
closer approximations of the
desired behavior.
Ex.
Billy: Could you tie my shoe?
Dad: (continues reading paper)
Billy: Dad, I need my shoes tied.
Dad: Uh, yeah, just a minute
Billy: DADDD! TIE MY SHOES!
Dad: How many times have I told you
not to whine? Now, which shoe do
we do first?
How do we actually use Operant
Conditioning?
Sometimes, we use a
process called
shaping.
Shaping is reinforcing
small steps on the
way to the desired
behavior.
To train a dog to get your
slippers, you would have to
reinforce him in small
steps. First, to find the
slippers. Then to put
them in his mouth. Then
Big Bang Theory- Operant Conditioning- to bring them to you and
YouTube
so on…this is shaping
behavior.
Reinforces
• Anything the INCREASES
a behavior.
Positive Reinforcement:
• The addition of something
pleasant.
Negative Reinforcement:
• The removal of something
unpleasant.
• Two types of NR
• Escape Learning
• Avoidance Learning
(Getting kicked out of class
versus cutting class)
Positive or Negative?
Putting your seatbelt on.
Faking sick to
avoid AP Psych
class.
Studying for a test.
Having a headache and
taking an aspirin.
Breaking out
of jail.
Getting a kiss
for doing the
dishes.
Primary & Secondary Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer
• Things that are in
themselves rewarding.
Secondary (conditioned)
Reinforcer
• Things we have learned to
value.
• Money is a special
secondary reinforcer
called a generalized
reinforcer (because it
can be traded for just
about anything)
Token Economy
• Every time a desired behavior is
performed, a token is given.
• They can trade tokens in for a variety
of prizes (reinforcers)
• Used in homes, prisons, mental
institutions and schools.
• Rats will not respond to reinforcers
that are greatly delayed, but humans
will (good grade at the end of the
semester, paycheck at the end of the
week, title at the end of the season).
Reinforcement Schedules
How often do you give
the reinforcer?
Continuous v. Partial
Reinforcement
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Continuous
Reinforce the behavior
EVERYTIME the
behavior is exhibited.
Acquisition comes
really fast.
But so does extinction.
Real life does not give
continuous
reinforcement.
Partial
• Reinforce the behavior
only SOME of the times
it is exhibited.
• Acquisition comes more
slowly.
• But is more resistant to
extinction.
• FOUR Partial
Reinforcement
schedules.
Ratio Schedules
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
• Provides a
reinforcement after
a SET number of
responses.
• Ex. Getting
Paid after
Selling 10
Items.
• Provides a
reinforcement after
a RANDOM number
of responses.
• Best type
• Ex. Fishing, gambling
Fixed Ration- She gets a manicure for every 5
pounds she loses.
Interval Schedules
Fixed Interval
• Requires a SET amount
of time to elapse
before giving the
reinforcement.
Variable Interval
• Requires a RANDOM
amount of time to
elapse before giving
the reinforcement.
• Produce slow, steady
responding
Fixed Interval: She gets a
manicure for every 7 days she
stays on her diet.
Effectiveness of reinforcement
Reinforcement Schedules
Based on Number of
necessary responses
Predictable
Unpredictable
(“On the
Average”)
Based on Time that must
first pass
Fixed Ratio
(FR)
Fixed Interval
(FI)
Variable Ratio
(VR)
Variable Interval
(VI)
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Punishment
Meant to decrease a behavior.
Positive Punishment
• Addition of something
unpleasant.
• Administer an aversive stimulus
Ex. Spanking, parking ticket
Negative Punishment (Omission
Training)
• Removal of something pleasant.
• Time-out from privileges,
revoked driver’s license.
Punishment works best when it is
immediate
Latent Leaning
Edward Toleman
Three rat experiment.
Latent means hidden.
Sometimes learning is
not immediately
evident.
• Rats needed a reason
to display what they
have learned.
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Intrinsic and
Extrinsic Motivation
• The desire to do something for its
own sake (intrinsic)
• May get lost with excessive
rewards (extrinsic motivationdesire to behave a certain way to
earn a reward or avoid
punishment)
Skinner’s Legacy
• Most controversial intellectual figures of the
late twentieth century
• Insisted that external influences (not internal
thoughts and feelings) shape behavior.
• Urged the use of operant conditioning to
influence behavior at school, work, and home
Chaining Behaviors
• Subjects are taught a
number of behaviors
successively in order
to get a reward.
Click picture to see a rat chaining behaviors.
Click to see a cool example of chaining behaviors.
Observational Learning
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Learning by observing others
Example: Learning not to touch the
stove because you observed your sister
get burnt.
Modeling-learning behaviors by
observing and imitating models.
What types of things do imitate or
model?
Scientists have discovered Mirror
neurons- provides a neural basis for
observational learning.
Albert Bandura and his BoBo Doll
We learn through modeling behavior
from others.
Click pic to see some observational learning.
Anti social and pro social influences
1999 Columbine Incident, Gandhi
Observational learning + Operant
Conditioning = Social Learning Theory
Insight Learning
• Wolfgang Kohler
and his
Chimpanzees.
• Some animals learn
through the “ah ha”
experience.
Click pic to see insight learning.