Download i Learning

PSYCHOLOGY
Learning
i
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
Learning
 Learning
L
i
relatively permanent change
in an organism’s behavior due
to experience
experience (nurture) is the
key to learning
Association
W learn
We
l
by
b association
i ti
Our minds naturally connect events
th t occur in
that
i sequence
Aristotle 2000 years ago
John
h Locke
k and
d David
id Hume 200 yrs
ago
A
Associative
i ti Learning
L
i
learning that two events occur together
two stimuli
a response and its consequences
Association
Event 1
Event 2
Learning to
associate
i
two events
Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock
Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics
Classical or Pavlovian
Conditioning
Two related events:
Stimulus 1
Li ht i
Lightning
Stimulus 2
Thunder
Result after repetition
Stimulus
We see
lightning
Response
We wince
anticipating
thunder
We learn to
associate two
stimuli
Operant Conditioning
We learn to
associate
i
a
response and
its
it
consequence
Response: Pushing
vending machine
button
Consequence:
Receiving a candy bar
Behaviorism
John B. Watson
viewed psychology as objective
science
generally agreed-upon consensus
today
recommended study of behavior
without
ith t reference
f
tto unobservable
b
bl
mental processes
not universally accepted by all
schools of thought today
Classical or Pavlovian
Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
1849-1936
1849
1936
Russian physician/ neurophysiologist
Nobel Prize in 1904
studied digestive secretions
Pavlov’s Classic
Experiment
Before Conditioning
UCS (food
in mouth)
UCR
(salivation)
During Conditioning
Neutral
stimulus
(tone)
No
salivation
After Conditioning
UCS (food
in mouth)
Neutral
stimulus
(tone)
UCR
(salivation)
CS
(tone)
CR (salivation)
Classical or Pavlovian
Conditioning
Pavlov’s device
for recording
salivation
Classical or Pavlovian
Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
organism comes to associate two stimuli
lightning and thunder
tone and food
begins with a reflex
a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus
that evokes the reflex
neutral stimulus eventually comes to evoke
the
h reflex
fl
Classical or Pavlovian
Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
effective stimulus that unconditionally
unconditionallyautomatically and naturally- triggers a
response
p
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
unlearned, naturally occurring automatic
unlearned
response to the unconditioned stimulus
salivation when food is in the mouth
Classical or Pavlovian
Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
previously

i
l neutral
t l stimulus
ti l that,
th t after
ft
association with an unconditioned stimulus,
comes to trigger a conditioned response
Conditioned Response (CR)
learned
l
d response to
t a previously
i
l neutral
t l
conditioned stimulus
Conditioning
Acquisition
the initial stage
g of learning,
g, during
g which a
response is established and gradually
strengthened
in classical conditioning, the phase in which a
stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned
response
in operant conditioning, the strengthening of
a reinforced response
Conditioning
Extinction
diminishing
g of a CR
in classical conditioning, when a
UCS does not follow a CS
in operant conditioning, when a
response is no longer reinforced
Classical or Pavlovian
Conditioning
Strength
of CR
Acquisition
(CS+UCS)
Extinction
(CS alone)
Spontaneous
recovery of
CR
Extinction
(CS alone)
Pause
Classical or Pavlovian
Conditioning
Spontaneous Recovery
reappearance, after a rest period,
reappearance
period of
an extinguished CR
Generalization
tendency for a stimuli similar to CS to
evoke similar responses
Classical or Pavlovian
Conditioning
Discrimination
in classical conditioning,
conditioning the ability to
distinguish between a CS and other stimuli
that do not signal and UCS
in operant conditioning, responding
differently to stimuli that signal a behavior
will be reinforced or will not be reinforced
Generalization
Drops of saliva
in 30 seconds
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Pelvis
Hind
paw
Thigh
Shoulder
Trunk
Front
paw
Foreleg
Part of body stimulated
Classical or Pavlovian
Conditioning
UCS
(passionate
kiss)
CS
(onion
breath)
CS
(onion
b
breath)
th)
UCR
(sexual
arousal)
l)
UCS
(passionate
Kiss))
CR
(sexual
arousal)
UCR
(sexual
arousal)
Nausea Conditioning in
Cancer Patients
UCS
(drug)
UCR
(nausea)
CS
(waiting
room)
UCS
(drug)
UCR
(nausea)
CS
(waiting
room))
CR
(nausea)
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement or
diminished if followed by punishment
Law of Effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed
by favorable consequences become more
likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable
consequences become
b
less
l
likely
lik l
Operant Conditioning
Operant Behavior
complex or voluntary behaviors
push button, perform complex task
operates (acts) on environment
produces consequences
Respondent Behavior
occurs as an automatic response to
stimulus
behavior learned through classical
conditioning
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
elaborated Thorndike
Thorndike’ss Law of
Effect
developed behavioral technology
Operant Chamber
Skinner Box
soundproof
chamber with a
bar or key that an
animal presses or
pecks to release a
food or water
reward
contains
co ta s a de
device
ce
to record
responses
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcer
any event that strengthens the behavior it
follows
Shaping
conditioning

di i i procedure
d
in
i which
hi h
reinforcers guide behavior toward closer
approximations of a desired goal
Successive Approximations
reward

d behaviors
b h i
that
th t increasingly
i
i l
resemble desired behavior
Principles of
Reinforcement
Primary Reinforcer
innately reinforcing stimulus
satisfies a biological need
Secondary Reinforcer
conditioned reinforcer
learned through association with
primary reinforcer
Schedules of
Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response each time it
occurs
learning occurs rapidly
extinction occurs rapidly
Partial Reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time
results in slower acquisition
greater resistance to extinction
Schedules of
Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
reinforces a response only after a
specified number of responses
faster you respond the more rewards you
get
different ratios
very high rate of responding
like piecework pay
Schedules of
Reinforcement
Variable Ratio (VR)
reinforces

i f
a response after
f
an
unpredictable number of responses
average ratios
like g
gambling,
g, fishing
g
very hard to extinguish because of
unpredictability
Schedules of
Reinforcement
Fixed Interval (FI)
reinforces a response only after a
specified time has elapsed
response occurs more frequently
f
as
the anticipated time for reward
draws near
Schedules of
Reinforcement
Variable Interval (VI)
reinforces

i f
a response at
unpredictable time intervals
produces slow steady responding
like p
pop
p quiz
q
Schedules of
Reinforcement
Number of
responses
1000
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
750
Rapid responding
near time for
reinforcement
500
Variable Interval
250
Steady responding
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time (minutes)
60
70
80
Punishment
Punishment
aversive event that decreases
the behavior that it follows
powerful controller of unwanted
behavior
Problems with
Punishment
Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's
suppressedd behavior
b h i returns when
h
punishment is no longer eminent
C
Causes
increased
i
d aggressioni
shows
h
that
th t
aggression is a way to cope with problemsExplains why aggressive delinquents and
abusive parents come from abusive homes
Problems with
Punishment
Creates fear that can generalize to desirable
behaviors, e.g. fear of school, learned
helplessness depression
helplessness,
Does not necessarily guide toward desired
behavior- reinforcement tells you what to do-behavior
do
punishment tells you what not to doCombination of punishment and reward can be
more effective than punishment alone
Punishment teaches how to avoid it
Cognition and Operant
Conditioning
C
Cognitive
iti Map
M
mental representation of the layout of
one’s
’ environment
i
t
example- after exploring a maze, rats act
as if they have learned a cognitive map of
it
Latent Learning
learning that occurs, but is not apparent
until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Cognition and Operant
Conditioning
Overjustification Effect
the effect of promising a reward for
doing what one already likes to do
the person may now see the reward,
rather than intrinsic interest,, as the
motivation for performing the task
Latent Learning
Average
A
errors
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Days
Operant vs Classical Conditioning
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
The Response
Involuntary automatic
Involuntary,
“Voluntary
Voluntary,” operates on
environment
Acquisition
Associating events;
CS announces UCS.
Associating response with a
Consequence (reinforcer or
punisher).
Extinction
CR decreases when CS is
repeatedly presented alone.
alone
Responding decreases when
reinforcement stops.
stops
Cognitive
processes
Subjects develop expectation
that CS signals the arrival of
UCS
UCS.
Subjects develop expectation that
a response will be reinforced or
P i h d they
Punished;
th also
l exhibit
hibit latent
l t t
learning, without reinforcement
Biological
predispositions
di
iti
Natural predispositions
contain
t i what
h t stimuli
ti
li and
d
responses can easily be
associated.
Organisms best learn behaviors
similar
i il to
t their
th i natural
t
l behaviors;
b h i
unnatural behaviors instinctively
drift back toward natural ones.
Observational Learning
Observational Learning
learning by observing and imitating others
Modeling
process of observing and imitating
behavior
Prosocial Behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior
opposite of antisocial behavior