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Psych 100: Study Guide for Test #2 Chapters 6, 7, 8, 10, and related class work/notes General: As on the last test, many items are from primarily class-only material (not covered in the text) or primarily textbook-only material (not covered in class). If you neglect one of these aspects of the course in your studying, you are unlikely to pass the exam. If you missed any class, be sure to get good notes from a classmate who can walk you through them. Don’t forget handouts, lab material, and notes from videos, demos, activities, including: o The CC/OC handout on our class website. o The Jigsaw/Memory handout. If you weren’t completely satisfied with a classmate’s explanation, look into it yourself and answer the questions o The Attachment video – handout and notes of content not on the handout. Go to the Center for Teaching and Learning for help with general study/test-taking strategies. There are also a limited number of peer tutors available – seek this out ASAP. Multiple Choice: You know what these are like. Suggestions: o Know important terms, concepts, and experiments well (except the things on the don’t-need-to-know list) o Take all of the available online practice tests (quiz, pre, post) o Think carefully about each choice (a, b, c, d, e) – Beware of good distractor items Matching, Fill in the Blank Possible topics include (not an exhaustive list!): Types of learning (classical, operant, social-observational, conditioned taste aversion) Types of behavioral contingency (positive reinforcement, negative punishment, etc.) Components of classical conditioning (CS, CR, UCS, UCR) Types of memory; memory principles and/or methods Core principles/concepts in cognitive psychology (e.g., cognitive errors, heuristics, attention) Developmental categorizations (attachment, temperament, parenting style); developmental stages (Piaget, Erickson, Kohlberg) Famous psychologists and their work (e.g., Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Thorndike, Ebbinghaus, Ainsworth, Piaget, Kohlberg, Vygotsky, Erickson). Also know Clive & HM. Short Answers – Some generic (and thus vague) formats that may appear (note that I would specify the given area/topic in the question, not leave it open): Given a list of 6-8 concepts, construct a description that weaves these together in a meaningful way. Explain how you can apply the principles of a certain area of psychology to a particular real-life situation. Describe a particular theory that we have covered in class, using an example (of behavior, an experimental finding, etc.) to illustrate it. Provide an example of an experiment (e.g., from the text) that illustrates a key principle that we have covered. Design an original experiment to test a particular area (question, hypothesis) that we have covered in this section of the class. Specify your independent and dependent variables (so Conley ~ Knox College be sure you know the difference!) and describe the sample and methodology you would use. Finally, how would you evaluate/interpret your results (how would you know if your hypothesis was true)? Describe what we don’t yet know, what the remaining questions are, in a given area of psychology research. What are the limitations of the experiments that have been done in the area? What have we not yet been able to answer? Some things that won’t be on the test! Chapter 6: – methodological versus radical behaviorists – stimulus-response psychology – blocking effect – Premack principle – disequilibrium principle – escape learning, avoidance learning, passive avoidance learning (but do know punishment) – omission training – skeletal responses, visceral responses – persuasion (p. 217) – birdsong learning Chapter 7: – phonological loop – visuospatial sketchpad – central executive – method of loci – savings method, relearning method – SPAR method (but it’s a good strategy to know and use!) Chapter 8: – characteristics of creativity – sunk cost effect – the language abilities of nonhuman animals – phoneme, morpheme – transformational grammar – Williams syndrome – word-superiority effect – bilingualism Chapter 10: – PKU – fetal alcohol syndrome – identity achievement – identity diffusion – identity foreclosure – identity moratorium – midlife transition – terror-management theory Conley ~ Knox College Psych 100: Glossary of Terms for Test #2 Below is a reproduction of the glossaries from chapters 6, 7, 8, and 10 (plus some added concepts not in the glossaries). Note that this not an exhaustive list of what will appear on the test. Of course, knowing definitions of terms is only part of what you need to know for the test. This is no replacement for studying concepts, theories, themes, experiments, etc. Chapter 6 Acquisition the process by which a conditioned response is established or strengthened Active avoidance learning learning to make a response to avoid an event such as shock Avoidance learning learning to make a response that avoids pain or some similar outcome Behavior modification a procedure for determining the reinforcers that sustain an unwanted behavior and then (or Applied behavior reducing the reinforcements for the unwanted behavior and providing suitable reinforcers analysis) for more acceptable behaviors Behaviorist a psychologist who insists that psychologists should study only observable, measurable behaviors, not mental processes Belongingness the concept that certain stimuli are readily associated with each other and that certain responses are readily associated with certain outcomes Blocking effect the tendency of a previously established association to one stimulus to block the formation of an association to an added stimulus Chaining a procedure for developing a sequence of behaviors in which the reinforcement for one response is the opportunity to engage in the next response Classical conditioning (or Pavlovian conditioning) the process by which an organism learns a new association between two paired stimuli—a neutral stimulus and one that already evokes a reflexive response Conditioned response whatever response the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit as a result of the conditioning (CR) procedure Conditioned stimulus (CS) a stimulus that comes to evoke a particular response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus Conditioned taste aversion the tendency to avoid eating a substance that has been followed by illness when it was eaten in the past Continuous reinforcement reinforcement for every correct response Discrimination (1) in classical conditioning making different responses to different stimuli that have been followed by different outcomes; (2) in operant conditioning learning to respond in one way to one stimulus and in a different way to another stimulus; (3) in social behavior unequal treatment of different groups of people Discriminative stimulus a stimulus that indicates on which occasion a response will produce a certain consequence Disequilibrium principle the principle that an opportunity to engage in any deprived activity will be a reinforcer because it restores equilibrium Drug tolerance the progressively weaker effects of a drug after repeated use Escape learning learning to escape from an event such as shock Extinction (1) in classical conditioning the dying out of the conditioned response after repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus; (2) in Conley ~ Knox College operant conditioning the weakening of a response after a period without reinforcement Fixed-interval schedule a rule for delivering reinforcement for the first response that the subject makes after a specified period of time has passed Fixed-ratio schedule a rule for delivering reinforcement only after the subject has made a specific number of correct responses Intermittent reinforcement reinforcement for some responses and not for others Intervening variable something that we infer without directly observing it and that links a variety of procedures to a variety of possible responses Law of effect Thorndike's theory that a response followed by favorable consequences becomes more probable and a response followed by unfavorable consequences becomes less probable Learning curve a graphical representation of the changes in behavior that occur over the course of learning Methodological behaviorist a psychologist who studies only measurable, observable events but sometimes uses those observations to make inferences about internal events Negative punishment a decrease in the future probability of a response because it led to the absence of something such as food Negative reinforcement an increase in the future probability of a response because it led to the absence of something such as pain Omission training learning to suppress a behavior that would lead to the omission of an event such as food Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) the process of changing behavior by following a response with reinforcement Passive avoidance learning learning to avoid an outcome such as shock by being passive—that is, by inhibiting a response that would lead to the outcome Positive reinforcement strengthening a behavior through the presentation of an event such as food Premack principle the principle that the opportunity to engage in a frequent behavior will reinforce a less frequent behavior Primary reinforcer an event that is reinforcing because of its own properties [Positive] Punishment an event that decreases the probability that a response will be repeated Radical behaviorist a behaviorist who denies that internal, private events are causes of behavior Reinforcement an event that increases the future probability of the most recent response Reinforcer an event that follows a response and increases the later probability or frequency of that response Schedule of reinforcement a rule or procedure linking the pattern of responses to the reinforcements Secondary reinforcer an event that becomes reinforcing because it has previously been associated with a primary reinforcer Self-efficacy the perception of one's own ability to perform a task successfully Sensitive period a time early in life during which some kind of learning occurs most readily Shaping a technique for establishing a new response by reinforcing successive approximations Conley ~ Knox College Skeletal responses movements of the muscles that move the limbs, trunk, and head Social-learning (observational learning) approach the view that people learn by observing and imitating the behavior of others and by imagining the consequences of their own behavior Spontaneous recovery the temporary return of an extinguished response after a delay Stimulus–response psychology a field that attempts to explain behavior in terms of how each stimulus triggers a response Stimulus control the ability of a stimulus to encourage some responses and discourage others Stimulus generalization (1) in classical conditioning the extension of a conditioned response from the training stimulus to similar stimuli; (2) in operant conditioning the tendency to make a similar response to a stimulus that resembles one that has already been associated with reinforcement Unconditioned reflex an automatic connection between a stimulus and a response Unconditioned response (UCR) an automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) a stimulus that automatically elicits an unconditioned response Variable-interval schedule a rule for delivering reinforcement after varying amounts of time Variable-ratio schedule a rule for delivering reinforcement after varying numbers of correct responses Vicarious reinforcement (or vicarious punishment) the observed reinforcement or punishment experienced by someone else Visceral responses activities of the internal organs Chapter 7 Alzheimer's disease a condition occurring mostly in old age, characterized by increasingly severe memory loss, confusion, depression, and disordered thinking Amnesia the severe loss or deterioration of memory Anterograde amnesia the inability to store new long-term memories Chunking the process of grouping digits or letters into meaningful sequences Confabulations attempts made by amnesic patients to fill in the gaps in their memory, mostly with out-ofdate information Consolidation the formation and strengthening of long-term memories Cued recall a method of testing memory by asking someone to remember a certain item after being given a hint Declarative memory the recall of factual information Dissociation a condition in which memory is stored but cannot be retrieved Encoding specificity principle the tendency for the associations formed at the time of learning to be more effective retrieval cues than other associations Episodic memory a memory for specific events in a person's life Conley ~ Knox College Explicit memory (or direct memory) a memory that a person can state, generally recognizing that it is the correct answer False memory a report that someone believes to be a memory but that does not actually correspond to real events Free recall a method of testing memory by asking someone to produce a certain item (e.g., a word) without substantial hints, as on an essay or short-answer test Hindsight bias the tendency to mold our recollection of the past to fit how events later turned out Hippocampus a forebrain structure in the interior of the temporal lobe that is important for storing certain kinds of memory Implicit memory (or indirect memory) a memory that influences behavior without requiring conscious recognition that one is using a memory Infant amnesia (or childhood amnesia) a relative lack of declarative memories from early in life Informationprocessing model the view that information is processed, coded, and stored in various ways in human memory as it is in a computer Korsakoff's syndrome a condition caused by a prolonged deficiency of vitamin B1, which results in both retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia Levels-of-processing principle the concept that the number and types of associations established during learning determine the ease of later retrieval of a memory Long-term memory a relatively permanent store of information Memory the process of retaining information or the information retained Method of loci a mnemonic device that calls for linking the items on a list with a memorized list of places Mnemonic device any memory aid that is based on encoding each item in a special way Priming the temporarily increased probability of using a word as a result of recently reading or hearing it Proactive interference the hindrance that an older memory produces on a newer one Procedural memory the retention of learned skills Recognition a method of testing memory by asking someone to choose the correct item from a set of alternatives Reconstruction putting together an account of past events, based partly on memories and partly on expectations of what must have happened Recovered memory a report of a long-lost memory, prompted by clinical techniques Repression according to Freudian theory, motivated forgetting, the process of moving an unacceptable memory, motivation, or emotion from the conscious mind to the unconscious mind Retrieval cue information associated with remembered material, which can be useful for helping to recall that material Retroactive interference the impairment that a newer memory produces on an older one Retrograde amnesia the loss of memory for events that occurred before the brain damage Savings method (or relearning method) a method of testing memory by measuring how much faster someone can relearn something than learn something for the first time Conley ~ Knox College Semantic memory memory of general principles Sensory store a very brief storage of sensory information Serial-order effect the tendency to remember the items near the beginning and end of a list better than those in the middle Short-term memory a temporary storage of a limited amount of information SPAR method a systematic way to monitor and improve understanding of a text by surveying, processing meaningfully, asking questions, and reviewing State-dependent memory the tendency to remember something better if your body is in the same condition during recall as it was during the original learning Working memory a system that processes and works with current information, including three components—a central executive, a phonological loop, and a visuospatial sketchpad Chapter 8 Algorithm a mechanical, repetitive procedure for solving a problem Attention the tendency to respond to some stimuli more than others or to remember some more than others Attentional blink a brief period after perceiving a stimulus, during which it is difficult to attend to another stimulus Attentive process a procedure that extracts information from one part of the visual field at a time Availability heuristic the strategy of assuming that how easily one can remember examples of some kind of event indicates how common the event actually is Base-rate information data about the frequency or probability of a given item Bilingual able to use two languages about equally well Broca's aphasia a condition characterized by inarticulate speech and by difficulties with both using and understanding grammatical devices—prepositions, conjunctions, word endings, complex sentence structures, and so forth Change blindness the tendency to fail to detect changes in any part of a scene to which we are not focusing our attention Cognition the processes of thinking, gaining knowledge, and dealing with knowledge Confirmation bias the tendency to accept one hypothesis and then look for evidence to support it, instead of considering other possibilities Critical thinking the careful evaluation of evidence for and against any conclusion Fixation (a) in vision a period when the eyes are steady; (b) in Freud's theory a persisting preoccupation with an immature psychosexual interest as a result of frustration at that stage of psychosexual development Framing effect the tendency to answer a question differently when it is framed (phrased) differently Functional fixedness the tendency to adhere to a single approach to a problem or a single way of using an item Heuristics strategies for simplifying a problem or for guiding an investigation Language acquisition a built-in mechanism for acquiring language device Morpheme a unit of meaning Overconfidence the belief that one's opinions or predictions are highly correct when in fact they are not Conley ~ Knox College Phoneme a unit of sound Preattentive process a procedure for extracting information automatically and simultaneously across a large portion of the visual field Productivity the ability to express new ideas Prototype a familiar or typical example of a category Representativeness heuristic the tendency to assume that, if an item is similar to members of a particular category, it is probably a member of that category itself Saccade a quick jump in the focus of the eyes from one point to another Spreading activation the process by which the activation of one concept also activates or primes other concepts that are linked to it Stroop effect the tendency to read a word, especially if it is a color name, in spite of instructions to disregard the word and state the color of the ink in which it is printed Sunk cost effect the willingness to do something we wouldn't otherwise choose to do because of money or effort already spent Transformational grammar a system for converting a deep structure of a language into a surface structure Wernicke's aphasia a condition marked by difficulty recalling the names of objects and impaired comprehension of language Williams syndrome a genetic condition characterized by mental retardation in most regards but skillful use of language Word-superiority effect identifying a letter with greater ease when it is part of a whole word than when it is presented by itself Chapter 10 Accommodation Piaget's term for the modification of an established schema to fit a new object or problem Acculturation a transition from feeling part of the culture of one's original country to the culture of the country that one enters Assimilation Piaget's term for the application of an established schema to new objects or problems Attachment a long-term feeling of closeness between people, such as a child and a caregiver Authoritarian parents those who exert firm controls on their children, generally without explaining the reasons for the rules and without providing much warmth Authoritative parents those who are demanding and impose firm controls, but who are also warm and responsive to the child's communications Biculturalism the ability to alternate between membership in one culture and membership in another Chromosome a strand of hereditary material found in the nucleus of a cell Cohort a group of people born at a particular time (as compared to people born at different times) Conservation the concept that objects retain their weight, volume, and certain other properties in spite of changes in their shape or arrangement Cross-sectional study a study of groups of individuals of different ages all at the same time Dishabituation an increase in a previously habituated response as a result of a change in the stimulus Dizygotic (or fraternal) twins (literally, "two-egg" twins) twins who develop from two eggs fertilized by two different sperm; dizygotic twins are no more closely related than are any other children born to the Conley ~ Knox College same parents Egocentric (thinking) the inability to take the perspective of another person; a tendency to view the world as centered around oneself Equilibration the establishment of harmony or balance between assimilation and accommodation Fetal alcohol syndrome a condition marked by stunted growth of the head and body; malformations of the face, heart, and ears; and nervous system damage, including seizures, hyperactivity, learning disabilities, and mental retardation Fetus an organism more developed than an embryo but not yet born (from about 8 weeks after conception until birth in humans) Fraternal twins twins who develop from two eggs fertilized by two different sperm; they are no more closely related than are any other children born to the same parents Gene a segment of a chromosome that controls chemical reactions that ultimately direct the development of the organism Habituation a decrease in a person's response to a stimulus after it has been presented repeatedly Heritability [factor] an estimate of the variance within a population that is due to heredity Identical twins twins who develop from the same fertilized egg and therefore have the same genes Identity achievement the outcome of having explored various possible identities and then making one's own decisions Identity crisis concerns with decisions about the future and the quest for self-understanding Identity diffusion the condition of having not yet given any serious thought to identity decisions and having no clear sense of identity Identity foreclosure the state of having made firm identity decisions without having thought much about them Identity moratorium the state of seriously considering one's identity without yet having made any decisions Indifferent or uninvolved parents those who pay little attention to their children beyond doing what is necessary to feed and shelter them Longitudinal study a study of a single group of individuals over time Midlife transition a time of goal reassessment Monozygotic (or identical) twins (literally, "one-egg" twins) twins who develop from the same fertilized egg Moral dilemma a problem that pits one moral value against another Object permanence the concept that objects continue to exist even when one does not see, hear, or otherwise sense them Operation according to Piaget a mental process that can be reversed Permissive parents those who are warm and loving but undemanding Phenylketonuria (PKU) an inherited disorder in which a person lacks the chemical reactions that convert a nutrient called phenylalanine into other chemicals; unless the diet is carefully controlled, the affected person will become mentally retarded Preoperational stage according to Piaget the second stage of intellectual development, in which children lack operations Schema (pl.: schemata) an organized way of interacting with objects in the world Conley ~ Knox College Selective attrition the tendency of some kinds of people to be more likely than others to drop out of a study Sensorimotor stage according to Piaget the first stage of intellectual development; an infant's behavior is limited to making simple motor responses to sensory stimuli Sequential design a procedure in which researchers start with groups of people of different ages, studied at the same time, and then study them again at one or more later times Sex chromosomes the pair of chromosomes that determine whether an individual will develop as a female or as a male Sex-limited gene a gene that affects one sex more strongly than the other, even though both sexes have the gene Sex-linked gene a gene located on the X chromosome Stage of concrete operations according to Piaget the ability to deal with the properties of concrete objects but not hypothetical or abstract questions Stage of formal operations according to Piaget the stage when children develop the ability to deal with abstract, hypothetical situations, which demand logical, deductive reasoning and systematic planning Strange Situation a procedure in which a psychologist observes an infant's behavior in an unfamiliar room at various times as a stranger enters, leaves, and returns and the mother enters, leaves, and returns Temperament people's tendency to be either active or inactive, outgoing or reserved, and to respond vigorously or quietly to new stimuli Terror-management theory the proposal that we cope with our fear of death by avoiding thinking about death and by affirming a worldview that provides self-esteem, hope, and value in life Theory of mind an understanding that other people have a mind too and that each person knows some things that other people don't know X chromosome a sex chromosome; females have two per cell and males have only one Y chromosome a sex chromosome; males have one per cell and females have none Zone of proximal development the distance between what a child can do on his or her own and what the child can do with the help of adults or older children Zygote a fertilized egg cell Other Terms, Concepts, and People to Know – not exhaustive! Chapter 6 Pavlov Skinner Watson Thorndike Chapter 7 HM Clive Karl Lashley (hint – early memory experiments) Chapter 8 Inattentional blindness (like change blindness) Concepts & Mental models (Failures of) selective attention Chapter 10 twin studies adoption studies Kohlberg Piaget Erickson Ainsworth secure attachment insecure attachment internal working model secure base goodness of fit easy temperament difficult temperament slow-to-warm-up temp. relational aggression Conley ~ Knox College