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UNITED
NATIONS
SC
UNEP/POPS/COP.5/30
Distr.: General
5 January 2011
Stockholm Convention
on Persistent Organic
Pollutants
Original: English
Conference of the Parties to the Stockholm
Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
Fifth meeting
Geneva, 25–29 April 2011
Item 4 (j) of the provisional agenda*
Matters related to the implementation of the Convention:
effectiveness evaluation
Global monitoring plan for effectiveness evaluation**
Note by the Secretariat
1.
By its decision SC-4/31 the Conference of the Parties to the Stockholm Convention on
Persistent Organic Pollutants:
(a)
Adopted the global monitoring plan for persistent organic pollutants that it had
provisionally adopted at its third meeting;
(b)
Welcomed the regional monitoring reports and the global monitoring report that had
been prepared pursuant to decision SC-3/19 and requested the Secretariat, in cooperation with the
regional organization groups, to include additional human tissue data in annexes to the regional
monitoring reports;
(c)
Adopted the terms of reference and mandate of the regional organization groups and
the global coordination group and requested the Secretariat to support the global coordination group in
updating the guidance document for the global monitoring plan with additional chapters on long-range
transport, specimen banking and the impact of listing new chemicals in the Convention.
2.
The terms of reference of the global coordination group set forth in the annex to
decision SC-4/31 also encourage further assessment of long-range transport of persistent organic
pollutants while considering the effect of climate and meteorology on their observed trends.
3.
In response to the above requests, the Secretariat convened an expert group, comprising
members of the global coordination group and invited experts, and organized two meetings of the
group in 2010 to evaluate the impact on the global monitoring plan guidance document of the listing of
nine new chemicals in the Convention by the Conference of the Parties at its fourth meeting.
4.
The results of the work of the expert group will be considered at a meeting of the global
coordination group held from 8 to 10 March 2011. The results included revised guidance on the
sampling and analysis of new and candidate persistent organic pollutants in ambient air and human
milk and blood, and new chapters of the global monitoring plan guidance document on specimen
banking and on the sampling and analysis of new and candidate persistent organic pollutants in other
*
UNEP/POPS/COP.5/1.
**
Stockholm Convention, Article 16; report of the Conference of the Parties on the work of its second
meeting (UNEP/POPS/COP.2/30), annex I, decision SC-2/13; report of the Conference of the Parties on the work
of its third meeting (UNEP/POPS/COP.3/30), annex I, decision SC-3/19; and report of the Conference of the
Parties on the work of its fourth meeting (UNEP/POPS/COP.4/38), annex I, decision SC-4/31.
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media. The strategy, process and draft structure for the regional reports and data handling issues were
also discussed by the global coordination group, including as they related to the second round of
monitoring reports for effectiveness evaluation. The results of the continuing process of revising and
updating the global monitoring plan guidance document are discussed in document
UNEP/POPS/COP.5/INF/27. The report of the meeting of the global coordination group is set out in
document UNEP/POPS/COP.5/INF/25.
5.
During 2005–2007 and 2008–2010, UNEP and the World Health Organization implemented
the fourth and fifth rounds of global surveys to generate data on the concentration in human milk of
the 12 persistent organic pollutants listed in the Stockholm Convention, prior to the listing of nine new
chemicals in 2009, from countries where major gaps had been identified by the regional organization
groups for the implementation of the global monitoring plan. The results of the global surveys are
provided in document UNEP/POPS/COP.5/INF/28 as an annex to the regional monitoring reports.
Additional data on levels of persistent organic pollutants in Nordic populations are included in
document UNEP/POPS/COP.5/INF/29.
6.
To support the work of the global coordination group on issues related to long-range transport
and climate effects on observed levels of persistent organic pollutants, the Secretariat convened an
expert group to review existing information and data on the interlinkages between climate and
persistent organic pollutants from a global perspective. The findings on the implications of climate
variability and climate change for the global monitoring plan and effectiveness evaluation of the
Convention were reviewed by the global coordination group and are presented in the annex to the
present note. The full scientific study on climate change and persistent organic pollutants is provided
in document UNEP/POPS/COP.5/INF/26.
7.
The report set out in the annex to the present note provides a global view of persistent organic
pollutant releases into the environment, long-range transport and environmental fate, and human and
environmental exposure in a changing climate, in addition to potential coupled effects of climate and
persistent organic pollutants on human health and the environment. It also reviews the synergies
between the climate change and persistent organic pollutant policy agendas and identifies areas of
uncertainty and current gaps in available information and knowledge.
Possible action by the Conference of the Parties
8.
The Conference of the Parties may wish:
(a)
To take note of the report of the meeting of the global coordination group and consider
the conclusions and recommendations set out in document UNEP/POPS/COP.5/INF/25;
(b)
To welcome the revisions made to the guidance on the global monitoring plan
provided in document UNEP/POPS/COP.5/INF/27 and, to request the Secretariat to continue to
support the continuing process of revising and updating the guidance document, subject to the
availability of resources;
(c)
To encourage parties to use the draft revised guidance on the global monitoring plan
and provide comments to the Secretariat through the regional organization groups;
(d)
To take note of the study on the impacts of climate change and persistent organic
pollutants reproduced in document UNEP/POPS/COP.5/INF/26 and of the report on impacts of and
policy options for climate change and persistent organic pollutants set out in the annex to the present
note, and to encourage parties in a position to do so to support further studies to fill regional and
thematic data gaps, as identified in the annex to the present note;
(e)
To request the Secretariat, subject to the availability of resources, to continue
supporting the work of the regional organization groups and the global coordination group for the
global monitoring plan;
(f)
Also to request the Secretariat, within available resources, to continue to support
training and capacity-building activities to assist countries in implementing the global monitoring plan
for subsequent effectiveness evaluations and to work with partners and other relevant organizations to
undertake implementation activities;
(g)
To encourage parties to engage actively in the implementation of the global monitoring
plan and the effectiveness evaluation, in particular:
(i)
2
To continue to monitor the core media of air and human breast milk or human
blood and, if in a position to do so, initiate monitoring of perfluorooctane
sulfonate in surface water in support of future evaluations;
UNEP/POPS/COP.5/30
(ii)
To support the further development and long-term implementation of the
global monitoring plan if in a position to do so.
(h)
To request the financial mechanism of the Convention and invite other donors to
provide sufficient financial support to permit further step-by-step capacity enhancement, including
through strategic partnerships, to sustain the new monitoring initiatives, which provided data for the
first monitoring report.1
1
Subparagraph (h) is reproduced from annex III to document UNEP/POPS/COP.5/26, which sets forth
newly proposed additional guidance to the financial mechanism of the Convention. Subparagraph (h), along with
other proposed additional guidance to the financial mechanism, will be considered under item 4 (h) of the
provisional agenda. Inasmuch as it relates directly to the subject of the present note, however, it is reproduced
here for convenience.
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Annex
Climate change and persistent organic pollutants: impacts and
policy options
Executive summary
1.
The first global monitoring report under the global monitoring plan, released in 2009,
recognized the importance of climate for persistent organic pollutants. It also stressed the need to
consider the possible climate effects when interpreting temporal trend data for persistent organic
pollutants in global monitoring plan core media (i.e., human tissue and air). The present assessment of
impacts and policy options with regard to climate change and persistent organic pollutants is based on
the mandate accorded to the global coordination group by the Conference of the Parties to the
Stockholm Convention in decision SC-4/31 to assess the influences of climate on the levels of
persistent organic pollutants measured in the environment and in humans and the relevance of how
those influences might interfere with current and future evaluations of the effectiveness of the
measures taken under the Stockholm Convention.
2.
The present report highlights key scientific findings linked to the complex relationships
between climate change and the abatement of persistent organic pollutants. It provides an overview of
persistent organic pollutant releases to the environment, long-range transport and environmental fate,
and human and environmental exposure in a changing climate, in addition to the potential coupled
effects of climate and persistent organic pollutants on human health and the environment. It also
reviews the synergies between climate change mitigation policies and actions to eliminate and manage
persistent organic pollutants and provides recommendations based on the current state of science.
3.
A brief scientific evaluation of the current literature on climate change and persistent organic
pollutants can be found in the report on the impacts of climate change and persistent organic pollutants
(UNEP/POPS/COP.5/INF/26).The key findings of the report include:
(a)
Climate change could affect primary releases of persistent organic pollutants to air by
changing their rate of mobilization from materials or stockpiles, or by altering use patterns. This could
result in an increase in primary releases that could offset some of the efforts made to reduce emissions
of persistent organic pollutants under the Stockholm Convention. Higher temperatures will also
increase secondary releases of persistent organic pollutants to air by shifting their partitioning between
air and soil, and between air and water. Releases from environmental reservoirs such as soil, water and
ice will also increase as a result of these higher temperatures. The effects of temperature on releases of
semi-volatile persistent organic pollutants are probably the most important and strongest when it
comes to the environmental cycling of persistent organic pollutants. The expected increase in the
incidence of vector-borne diseases, such as malaria, associated with climate change may lead to
enhanced demand for and release of DDT in some regions;
(b)
Several main factors related directly to climate change have influenced and will
continue to influence the environmental fate of persistent organic pollutants, including the long-range
transport of such pollutants. They are:
(i)
Strength of secondary re-volatilization sources;
(ii)
Wind fields and wind speed;
(iii)
Precipitation rates;
(iv)
Ocean currents;
(v)
Melting of polar ice caps and mountain glaciers;
(vi)
Higher frequency of extreme events;
(vii)
Changes in degradation and transformation;
(viii) Partitioning;
(ix)
Biotic transport;
(c)
Climate change is expected to modulate the impact of exposure to persistent organic
pollutants on humans and wildlife. The lack of understanding of the effects of climate change on food
web structures and dynamics, however, means that it is currently impossible to make reliable
predictions as to the extent of those impacts or to determine where in the food chain the effects will be
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felt. It may be that species at the top of the food chain are most affected, causing a ripple effect that
would reach species at lower trophic levels, but, equally probably, it may be that changes in species at
lower trophic levels will lead to disturbances in the viability of species at higher trophic levels;
(d)
Climate change, including increasing climate variability, will also affect biodiversity
and ecosystem composition, function and vulnerability. The toxicity and toxicokinetics of persistent
organic pollutants could be altered as a direct result of changes in temperature. Climate change will
also affect salinity, ocean acidification, eutrophication, levels of oxygen in water and the nutritional
status of species and their adaptability. These changes, whether alone or in combination, could
enhance the toxic effects of persistent organic pollutants on wildlife and increase the risks of disease
and species vulnerability;
(e)
Persistent organic pollutants are known to have negative effects on human health,
including by causing or exacerbating cardiovascular disease, immunosuppressive problems, metabolic
disorders and cancers. They also have neuro-behavioural, endocrine and reproductive effects. If
climate change results in increased exposure to such pollutants, the risks related to their harmful
effects would also increase. The combined effects of several direct and indirect climate-related factors
– for example, excessive heat or cold, population migration related to temperature change and loss of
arable land, increased exposure to insect vectors of disease, and changes in the availability and quality
of traditional food – could also exacerbate the effects on human populations of exposure to persistent
organic pollutants. Social and economic factors such as education and general health status can also
contribute to human vulnerability to persistent organic pollutants.
4.
Conclusions related to synergies between climate change management and actions to eliminate
and reduce persistent organic pollutants, as discussed in document UNEP/POPS/COP.5/INF/26,
include the implementation of various climate change mitigation options intended to cut carbon
dioxide emissions. These would include the improvement of energy efficiency in power stations, the
replacement of fossil fuels by non-biomass renewable sources, and the improvement of combustion,
industrial and transportation technologies, which would be likely to reduce releases of unintentionally
produced persistent organic pollutants (mainly polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated
dibenzofurans, hexachlorobenzene and polychlorinated biphenyls).
5.
These measures could also reduce the emissions of several other contaminants of concern
(such as nitrogen and sulphur oxides and other gases, particulates, and mercury and other metals).
There are, however, some potential negative impacts that need to be taken into account when
considering mitigation options. For example, the increased use of biomass fuel could cause greater
emissions of some unintentionally produced persistent organic pollutants.
6.
The present report identifies several key areas where knowledge gaps need to be filled or
management actions need to be considered. The key recommendations relate to:
(a)
Development of co-benefit strategies that reduce the effects of both climate change and
persistent organic pollutants at the international, national and local levels through multidisciplinary
stakeholder working groups;
(b)
Research to improve, harmonize and consolidate knowledge of the relationship
between climate change and the negative effects of persistent organic pollutants on health and the
environment;
(c)
Commitment to long-term monitoring networks;
(d)
Improved public-sector and private-sector understanding of the combined effects of
exposure to persistent organic pollutants and climate change, through capacity-building;
(e)
Improved management of stockpiles and contaminated sites in areas at risk of water
incursion, flooding and storm events;
(f)
Use of opportunities for co-benefits and mitigation measures to reduce emissions of
both greenhouse gases and persistent organic pollutants;
(g)
Development of decision-support systems and data assessment tools (such as
geographic information systems, monitoring data assessments and prediction models);
(h)
Identification of resources and financial mechanisms for the implementation of policy
recommendations related to climate change and persistent organic pollutants, especially in areas in
which populations are most vulnerable and in developing countries and countries with economies in
transition.
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Introduction and background
7.
The Stockholm Convention aims to protect human health and the environment from the
negative effects of persistent organic pollutants. As the release, distribution and degradation of
persistent organic pollutants are highly dependent on environmental conditions, climate variability and
climate change have the potential to affect persistent organic pollutant contamination through changes
in emission sources and transport processes and pathways. Climate change, including climate
variability, may also alter exposure to persistent organic pollutants through various sources, processes
and mechanisms. Climate change and associated changes may also increase such pollutants’ toxic
impacts.
8.
The first global monitoring report under the global monitoring plan, released in 2009,
recognized the importance of climate for persistent organic pollutants. It also stressed the need to
consider the possible climate effects when interpreting temporal trend data for persistent organic
pollutants in global monitoring plan core media (i.e., human tissue and air). The report concluded that
consideration of the effects of climate on the transport and partitioning of persistent organic pollutants
had the potential to improve significantly the interpretation of measurements of persistent organic
pollutants in environmental media in future evaluations. It also concluded that further studies should
be encouraged to assess the influences of the climate on levels of persistent organic pollutants in
environmental media.
9.
By its decision SC-4/31, the Conference of the Parties to the Stockholm Convention
established terms of reference for the regional organization groups and the global coordination group,
and encouraged further assessment of long-range transport of persistent organic pollutants along with
the effect of climate and meteorology on observed trends in levels of persistent organic pollutants.
10.
Several studies have been undertaken to assess the effects of climate change on the dynamics
and toxicity of persistent organic pollutants. They include a 2010 assessment report produced by the
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe task force on hemispheric transport of air pollution,
recent Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme reports and a number of research projects.
11.
Based on the mandate accorded to the global coordination group to assess climate influences
on the levels of persistent organic pollutants measured in the environment and in humans, a technical
report was prepared by an expert group convened by the Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention in
January 2010.
12.
The technical report prepared by the expert group (UNEP/POPS/COP.5/INF/26) draws on the
latest scientific literature to provide a brief synthesis and review of the current state of knowledge at
the global level. It highlights key findings linked to the complex relationships between climate change
and persistent organic pollutants and aims to provide a global view of persistent organic pollutant
releases to the environment, long-range transport and environmental fate, and human and
environmental exposure in a changing climate. It identifies current thinking on the coupling of the
effects of climate and persistent organic pollutants on human health and the environment. It also
reviews the synergies between the climate change and persistent organic pollutant policy agendas and
provides policy messages based on the current state of science. Lastly, it identifies areas of uncertainty
and existing gaps in available information and knowledge.
13.
The present report describes the conclusions of, and major data gaps identified by, the expert
group in its technical report and, on the basis thereof, makes policy recommendations, in particular
with reference to the Stockholm Convention. An improved understanding of the influence of climate
change on persistent organic pollutant dynamics, exposure and toxicity, and of how those combine to
affect ecosystems and human health, will assist the scientific community and decision makers in
developing appropriate policy responses through the Stockholm Convention and supporting synergies
between international climate change and chemical management initiatives.
I.
Conclusions of the expert group on persistent organic pollutants
and climate change
14.
The expert group evaluated the most recent science available on interactions between climate
change and persistent organic pollutants. Its conclusions are described below.
A.
General trends
15.
Article 5 of the Stockholm Convention includes important obligations to reduce or eliminate
releases from intentional production and use of persistent organic pollutants and requires parties to
take measures to reduce their total releases of unintentionally produced persistent organic pollutants
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with the goal of their continuing minimization and where feasible ultimate elimination. Reductions in
the manufacture, use and disposal of many of the original 12 persistent organic pollutants listed under
Annexes A, B and C to the Convention (known as “the legacy persistent organic pollutants”) have led
to a general global decline in environmental concentrations. Levels of some individual persistent
organic pollutants such as DDT, hexachlorocyclohexane and hexachlorobenzene, commercial
pentabromodiphenyl ether, commercial octabromodiphenyl ether and perfluorooctane sulfonate may,
however, not be declining as rapidly or may even increase in regions most affected by climate change.
For newer persistent organic pollutants, for which regulations are only now entering into force or for
which restricted uses are permitted, levels are not expected to decline for several years and may
increase in most regions affected by climate change.
B.
Persistent organic pollutant releases
16.
The past and present manufacture, use and disposal of intentionally produced persistent
organic pollutants led to primary releases of those substances to the environment. Changes in overall
trends in future releases of persistent organic pollutants are difficult to predict. Evidence exists that
climate change will affect primary releases by changing their rate of mobilization from materials or
stockpiles and their degradation rates as a result of higher ambient temperatures, or by altering use
patterns or increasing demand, such as for DDT for disease vector control. Achievement of the
objectives of the Convention could therefore be affected by climate-related factors should they lead to
greater use and releases of persistent organic pollutants.
C.
Environmental fate of persistent organic pollutants
17.
After primary release, persistent organic pollutants circulate via environmental media until
they are deposited in environmental reservoirs known as “sinks”. They can subsequently, however, be
revolatilized and remobilized from these sinks, in a process known by the term “secondary releases”.
Such secondary releases are a confounding factor in the interpretation of monitoring data. There is
considerable uncertainty as to whether primary or secondary releases will dominate on a regional
basis.
18.
Environmental fate will be affected by several factors related to climate change at the global,
regional and local levels:
(a)
Remobilization (secondary releases) from environmental reservoirs as a result of
increased temperatures and extreme events such as flooding;
(b)
Increased airborne transport to locations downwind of main emission areas because of
higher wind speeds and stronger air circulation (mainly relevant at the regional level, with long-range
transport in the range of hundreds to thousands of kilometres);
(c)
Enhanced degradation of persistent organic pollutants if micro-organisms have higher
degradation capacity, but also increased formation of transformation products that are potentially akin
to persistent organic pollutants;
(d)
Changes in atmospheric deposition patterns stemming from spatial and temporal
changes in precipitation patterns (most relevant at the local and regional levels).
D.
Exposure to persistent organic pollutants
19.
As climate change affects primary and secondary releases of persistent organic pollutants, the
levels and patterns of exposure in wildlife and humans will also change. Climate change is already
altering food web structures in some areas, influencing the exposure of wildlife and humans to
persistent organic pollutants. There are, however, significant uncertainties concerning the effects of
climate change on ecosystems and food web structures. Given the scant baseline exposure information
for persistent organic pollutants in many parts of the developing world, uncertain predictions of
regional changes in climate, and lack of knowledge as to how ecosystems will respond to these
changes, it is currently impossible to evaluate accurately how climate change will affect the exposure
to persistent organic pollutants of animal and human populations.
E.
Effects on biota
20.
Overall, persistent organic pollutants are known to have direct adverse consequences on
individuals within a species and can affect population health. Most significant are the endocrine
effects, which may directly influence fecundity and survival, and thus have direct consequences for
individuals and population size. Endocrine-disrupting persistent organic pollutants can also interfere
with physiological and behavioural processes in animals, processes that are important for adaptation
and response to climate change. For example, they impair the ability to respond to changes in
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environmental temperature. They can also reduce the replenishment of heavily exploited stocks or
populations and their immunosuppressive effects may facilitate the spread of disease and have other
negative impacts on populations. Attention should be paid to new information resulting from
molecular and epigenetic studies that are examining the impacts and outcomes of exposure to
changing concentrations of persistent organic pollutants of organisms and cells.
21.
Several climate-related factors will modulate the toxicity and toxicokinetics of persistent
organic pollutants. These include salinity, ocean acidification, eutrophication, levels of oxygen in
water, changes in the nutritional status of individuals and species, temperature change and the
adaptability of individuals and species, and the proliferation of parasites and pathogens. These changes
could enhance, whether alone or in combination, the toxic effects of persistent organic pollutants and
ultimately increase species vulnerability. Particular species with low genetic variability (as occur in
some areas where DDT is applied) could face increased risks of extinction. The ecological effects of
climate-related changes and persistent organic pollutant toxicity could be manifested in top-down or
bottom-up effects that cascade through the ecosystem.
22.
In addition to persistent organic pollutant and climate-related impacts, ecosystems are also
exposed to several other human-caused stressors such as habitat loss and fragmentation,
over-harvesting of fish and wildlife populations, eutrophication, petroleum-related activities and urban
and agricultural discharges. The combination of some or all of these factors can push species beyond
their environmental tolerance limits and significantly reduce the rate of replenishment of harvested
stocks or populations.
F.
Effects on human health
23.
Persistent organic pollutants are well known for their adverse effects on individuals and human
populations. The extent of the effects depends on the amount, timing and duration of exposure. Those
at most risk from the effects of increased exposure to persistent organic pollutants include the
developing foetus (effects could include growth retardation and impaired neurological development),
children (effects could include cardiovascular disease, immunosuppression, metabolic disorders and
neuro-behavioural impairment) and women of reproductive age (effects could include impairment of
the endocrine and reproductive systems). Recent data suggest that older persons, who have been
exposed for a lifetime to mixtures of persistent organic pollutants, may also be vulnerable to late-onset
chronic disease (such as cardiovascular disease, metabolic disorders including diabetes and thyroid
dysfunction, bone disease and cancer).
24.
Data on current human exposure levels to persistent organic pollutants from many regions in
the developing world are scarce or unavailable. This paucity of exposure data combined with
uncertainty in climate change models for these same regions render it difficult to make predictions
about changes in exposure to persistent organic pollutants and risks to health. It is probable that
subsistence consumers (especially those harvesting food from the aquatic and marine environment) are
at a higher risk as a result of the contamination of their traditional food supply. Indigenous Arctic
populations are known to be exposed to some of the highest levels of environmentally transported
persistent organic pollutants and may become even more exposed as a result of the remobilization and
revolatilization of some persistent organic pollutants, such as hexachlorocyclohexane and
hexachlorobenzene, from melting polar ice and from the Arctic Ocean. Individuals who live in the
regions most affected by climate change may spend more time indoors and be exposed to higher levels
of typical indoor persistent organic pollutants (such as perfluorooctane sulfonate and polybrominated
diphenyl ethers). Individuals living in or near regions in which DDT may be applied for public health
reasons, such as to control the increased prevalence of disease vectors, may become more exposed to
this substance.
25.
Several climate-related factors will combine to exacerbate the effects of persistent organic
pollutants on humans, such as excessive heat or greater cold, overcrowding and the spread of disease
associated with population migration as land becomes less arable or floods, increased exposure to
vector-borne diseases and other microbial pathogens, and changes in the availability and quality of
traditional foods. Other determinants of health (such as social and economic status, education,
adequacy of shelter and general health status) may also combine to cause an adverse effect on human
responses to persistent organic pollutants and climate change.
G.
Mitigation co-benefits
26.
Mitigation actions to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and short-lived climate forcers
(e.g., black carbon or soot) are expected in most cases to result in simultaneous reductions in
emissions of unintentionally produced persistent organic pollutants and other contaminants of concern.
These reductions may be expected for emissions from major human-caused sources of carbon dioxide,
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including stationary combustion of fuels, incineration of wastes and transportation. In some cases,
however, where there is an increase in the use of biomass as fuel for heating and cooking,
unintentional emissions of persistent organic pollutants may increase.
27.
Technological and non-technological options for climate change mitigation can be considered
when discussing the co-benefits of reducing unintentional releases of persistent organic pollutants.
Major technological options include switching fuels, improving combustion efficiency, improving heat
recovery and recycling and changing combustion technologies. Non-technological measures
contributing to co-benefits include measures such as the introduction and enforcement of regulations.
H.
Knowledge gaps
28.
The following key knowledge gaps were identified during the technical review:
(a)
There is a need to identify and improve the characterization of both primary and
secondary emission sources of several persistent organic pollutants (such as polychlorinated biphenyls
and polybrominated diphenyl ethers) and to estimate future scenarios of the need for, and use of, DDT.
This is highly relevant for the prediction of future levels and trends and for the interpretation of
monitoring data;
(b)
Monitoring data and assessment tools are insufficient to evaluate the impact of climate
change on persistent organic pollutant emissions and concentrations. This holds especially true in
some developing regions, including South America, Asia, Africa and the Indian subcontinent. Specific
attention also needs to be paid to the effects of climate change on transport mechanisms of persistent
organic pollutants, particularly in air, since it is a core media under the global monitoring plan;
(c)
There is a need, as recognized in the recent global monitoring plan reports, to expand
and harmonize temporal trend monitoring in humans on a global basis to assess how levels of human
exposure to persistent organic pollutants change and what impact climate change has on those levels;
(d)
Computer-run mathematical models of the environmental fate of persistent organic
pollutants are important tools for predicting the response of such pollutants to changes in
environmental factors, including climate-related factors. There is therefore a need to build or improve
models for forecasting persistent organic pollutant fate, transport and exposure under projected climate
change scenarios. To ensure that these models are credible, it is essential to evaluate their results
against field data, which requires the availability of adequate monitoring data;
(e)
Understanding is poor of the potential impacts of a changing climate on
micro-organisms and how those impacts might affect the degradation of persistent organic pollutants
in soil and water. It is uncertain whether an increase in temperature will increase the metabolic activity
of micro-organisms and, accordingly, their capacity to degrade persistent organic pollutants, or if the
reverse will be true. The identification of the transformation and degradation products of persistent
organic pollutants that may be formed in material amounts under the conditions of climate change is
important, given that several transformation and degradation products have been found to possess
significant toxic characteristics;
(f)
There is a need for a greater understanding of how food web structures may be affected
by climate change to enable a better assessment of exposure pathways and impacts on species;
(g)
There is a need for toxicology studies for some newly listed persistent organic
pollutants, such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers and perfluorinated substances, and some
substances that have been identified as persistent organic pollutants but not yet listed under the
Stockholm Convention, such as endosulfan, hexabromocyclododecane and short-chained chlorinated
paraffins. These studies need also to consider the effects of mixtures of persistent organic pollutants
now found in various regions. Both types of studies (exposures to single substances and to mixtures)
are needed for estimating the effects of environmentally relevant concentrations of persistent organic
pollutants on human populations and other biota;
(h)
There is a need for a better understanding of the combined effects of persistent organic
pollutant exposure and climate change stresses on human populations and other biota. While many
potential stressors have been identified, there are few laboratory and even fewer field studies
combining climate change stress with persistent organic pollutant exposure.
(i)
It is not always clear whether climate change mitigation options have fully taken into
account negative influences associated with the production and distribution of unintentionally
produced persistent organic pollutants. For example, carbon capture and storage strategies to reduce
releases of carbon dioxide to air will also capture persistent organic pollutants and other contaminants
that are then transferred to land and aquatic environments, resulting in further environmental
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contamination of persistent organic pollutants. It is uncertain how much cooperation is currently in
place between policymakers who deal with climate change and those who deal with the management
of persistent organic pollutants domestically and internationally.
II.
Policy analysis and recommendations
29.
Several significant issues must be tackled for the successful implementation of the Stockholm
Convention at the national, regional and global levels. While Governments face challenges and
responsibilities with regard to the legacy persistent organic pollutants, they also need to take on the
challenges of the newly listed persistent organic pollutants and update their national implementation
plans in accordance with their respective obligations and available instruments of international
cooperation and technology exchange. Other substances with characteristics akin to those of persistent
organic pollutants are also under review and may become subject to the Convention at a later date.
Consideration of climate change aspects is likely to facilitate the implementation of the Convention
because climate change has the potential directly to affect the use, redistribution and fate of present
and future persistent organic pollutants.
30.
The expert group highlighted in its technical report that effects related to climate change, such
as temperature rise, increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events and sea-level rise,
were likely to interact with a variety of environmental stressors, including exposure to persistent
organic pollutants. While the interaction between climate change and persistent organic pollutants
remains a new research area with significant uncertainties, the information provided by the expert
group in its technical report is evidence that many probable effects of climate change are likely to
enhance persistent organic pollutant contamination and increase exposure in some regions. Efforts
under the Convention to eliminate or reduce persistent organic pollutants globally would benefit
significantly from a better understanding of the past and future impacts of climate change. In the
meantime, if the Convention’s objectives are to be achieved much may be gained by taking a
preventive or precautionary approach with regard to factors that could affect climate change.
31.
Climate change will also have implications for the evaluation of the effectiveness of the
Convention. An improved understanding of the effects of climate change on the release, transport and
partitioning of persistent organic pollutants could facilitate the interpretation of measurements of
persistent organic pollutants in environmental media and in human tissues. The expert group
concluded in its technical report that further studies should be encouraged to assess the influence of
climate on levels of persistent organic pollutants in environmental media, in addition to potential
negative impacts on human and environmental health. In this respect, the work under the global
monitoring plan is essential to provide guidance on monitoring and resolve the scientific gaps and
uncertainties identified.
32.
Under conditions of a changing climate, it becomes more urgent to identify and deal with
stockpiles of legacy persistent organic pollutants and contaminated sites and to focus on developing
alternatives to persistent organic pollutants listed in Annex B to the Convention. The policy
recommendations indicated below are based on the current state of the science and acknowledge the
important data gaps to be filled.
A.
Existing initiatives on persistent organic pollutants and climate change
33.
Several international organizations and programmes are dedicated to improving knowledge on
the sources, fate and impacts of persistent organic pollutants in the environment and on the impacts of
climate change on human populations and ecosystems. Both scientific and political initiatives exist for
persistent organic pollutants and for climate change (see the appendix to the present report); there is,
however, an urgent need for improved coordination between these initiatives and programmes to
ensure that efficiency and better information exchange are promoted. Equally important is the need to
promote an approach to identifying and tackling the combined impacts of climate change and exposure
to persistent organic pollutants. For example, the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee, the
global coordination group under the global monitoring plan of the Stockholm Convention and the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change are the technical bodies that evaluate scientific data and
provide support and relevant recommendations for decision-making purposes, i.e., to the conferences
of the parties to the Stockholm Convention and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, respectively. Communication and exchange of information between these groups could
provide important data and shared knowledge from both topic areas and facilitate an assessment of the
combined effects of persistent organic pollutants and climate change.
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B.
Policy recommendations
34.
The following policy recommendations emanate from the information gaps and action areas
identified by the expert group:
(a)
Governments are urged to consider the knowledge gaps identified in the present report
and to encourage and support research to improve, harmonize and consolidate knowledge on the
relationship between persistent organic pollutants and climate change, including aspects such as
environmental releases, transport, fate, degradation and effects in a changing climate at the national,
regional and global levels;
(b)
Governments are urged to contribute to the development of decision-support systems
that include more reliable predictions of future releases and impacts of current and emerging persistent
organic pollutants and climate change. Better predictive tools would assist in the development of
implementation strategies to establish and meet release reduction targets corresponding to the
objectives of the Convention;
(c)
The Convention’s global monitoring plan on persistent organic pollutants has been
established using organizational structures that include regional organization groups and a global
coordination group. Governments are urged to commit themselves to long-term monitoring networks
and to request that the information provided in the present report be taken into account in the
implementation of the global monitoring plan. Governments should develop strategies for ensuring the
existence of a sufficient knowledge base for decision-making, including a better understanding of the
relationships between changes in climate and levels of persistent organic pollutants in the
environment;
(d)
The potential for increased releases of persistent organic pollutants and changes in
their use as a result of climate change and the potential remobilization of persistent organic pollutants
from waste dumps, soils, sediments and other reservoirs of persistent organic pollutants as a result of
extreme weather events (such as flooding and storms) need to be considered by all stakeholders,
including industry bodies. Governments are urged to improve the management of existing chemical
stockpiles and landfills and the clean-up of contaminated sites in areas at risk of water incursion,
flooding and storm events. New landfills should not be sited in such areas. In addition, inventories of
existing stockpiles of regulated persistent organic pollutants should be updated and inventories for the
newly regulated persistent organic pollutants developed. Improved information is also required on the
amount and frequency of use of the persistent organic pollutants listed in Annex B to the Convention;
(e)
Governments are urged to support developing countries and countries with economies
in transition in reducing their emissions of persistent organic pollutants and greenhouse gases.
Measures might include greater collaboration between the Basel and Stockholm conventions to reduce
the illegal dumping of hazardous wastes or the uncontrolled export of electronic wastes to countries
with poor dismantling technologies and poor occupational health protection; strategies for reducing
significantly or restricting the open burning of waste, and information on more efficient combustion
technologies, i.e., best available techniques and best environmental practices;
(f)
Governments are urged to identify and implement measures to reduce the combined
impacts of climate change and persistent organic pollutants on the most vulnerable and disadvantaged
populations, such as indigenous populations that rely on traditional diets (especially Arctic populations
consuming fish and marine mammals), those in malaria-affected regions and those with poor health
and nutrition;
(g)
Governments are urged to explore and assess opportunities for co-benefits and
mitigation measures to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and persistent organic pollutants through
appropriate regulations and life-cycle management options, such as the prohibition of the open burning
of waste, the improvement of waste management and more efficient combustion processes. They are
also urged to explore and disseminate information on possible mitigation activities and the co-benefits
of managing persistent organic pollutants, other contaminants and climate change in an integrated
manner. To improve the understanding of industry bodies and civil society of the combined effects of
persistent organic pollutant exposure and climate change, Governments are encouraged to provide
capacity-building, education, outreach and awareness programmes for the general public and industry
stakeholders, in relation to the impacts of persistent organic pollutants and climate change on human
health and the environment;
(h)
An essential step to developing co-benefit strategies at the international, national and
local levels would be to establish a mandate for multidisciplinary stakeholder working groups,
drawing on existing committees on chemicals, wastes and climate change. The role of these groups
would be to enhance collaboration and communication between key climate change and persistent
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organic pollutant stakeholders, which might include various environmental protection authorities,
government departments and international bodies (including United Nations agencies), the health
sector, industry bodies, academic institutions, and other non-governmental stakeholders. Cooperation
between all stakeholders and a review of existing international and regional agreements on persistent
organic pollutant management and climate change mitigation with regard to enhanced cooperation will
be essential factors in successfully and simultaneously reducing the effects of persistent organic
pollutants and climate change.
III.
Conclusions
35.
The above recommendations are made in the light of the current understanding of the potential
interactions between persistent organic pollutants and climate change, which recognizes that both are
environmental stressors in their own right and that their combination could result in increased harm to
human health and the environment. They also deal with the uncertainty in current scientific
information.
36.
The issues of persistent organic pollutants and climate change are both global in nature. A
coordinated response is needed from decision makers worldwide to counteract the immediate,
medium-term and long-term effects on human health and ecosystems of concurrent exposure to
persistent organic pollutants and changing climates.
37.
Given the current knowledge gaps, a precautionary approach is needed to guide the
development and adoption of policy actions to ensure that human health and the environment are
protected from the negative impacts of persistent organic pollutants and climate change and their
combined effects.
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Appendix
List of international initiatives on chemicals research and assessment
A.
International Panel on Chemical Pollution
1.
The International Panel on Chemical Pollution (www.ipcp.ch) was established as an
organization for scientists involved in environmental pollution issues seeking to bridge the gap
between science and policy. Scientists from a wide range of disciplines collaborate with various
scientific societies and one another in an interdisciplinary manner with a view to gaining credibility in
the interpretation of scientific findings for effective communication between science and policy. The
Panel’s main task is to provide scientific support for decision makers dealing with pollution problems
and the assessment and management of chemicals, both at the national and international levels, based
on current scientific knowledge. Furthermore, the Panel seeks to offer expertise gathered from within
to deliver state-of-knowledge documents on topics related to chemicals, health and the environment
for other interested parties and stakeholders.
B.
Global monitoring and assessment group
2.
A global monitoring and assessment group is being established within UNEP to formulate
schemes and tools for reporting progress under multilateral environmental agreements and to provide
advice on the integrity and robustness of monitoring and assessment tools. It will be jointly chaired by
the Chemicals Branch of the Division of Technology, Industry and Economics and the Division of
Early Warning and Assessment. It will comprise global stakeholders such as the Scientific and
Technical Advisory Panel of the Global Environment Facility and academic and standard-setting
institutions. Decisions by the conferences of the parties to multilateral environmental agreements or
resolutions of the International Conference on Chemicals Management and their stakeholders will feed
into the group. The group will support the schemes and the assessments under development and
provide training in and distribute the methods, tools and schemes.
C.
Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
3.
Recently, the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (www.setac.org) published
a call for research that emphasized the importance of the effects of climate change on contaminants,
including persistent organic pollutants, to regulatory decision-making. The authors call for the
employment of broader frameworks to prevent myopic views of environmental issues given that
climate change is a global environmental threat that will affect all ecosystems in the years to come.
The Society proposes the holding of specialized workshops for international experts to provide
recommendations to regulatory agencies on short-term and long-term measures for adaptation to
changing climate conditions and to identify research needed to fill data gaps.
D.
Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management
4.
The Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (www.saicm.org) provides a
policy framework for promoting chemical safety worldwide. At the second session of the International
Conference on Chemicals Management, in Geneva in May 2009, mention was made that it was crucial
for the link between chemicals and climate change to be accentuated and for a global strategy on
knowledge and information to be developed. In addition, it was suggested that an international
chemicals panel, along the lines of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, could be the
answer to filling the gaps in scientific knowledge for politicians and legislators and to enabling them
to intensify their efforts to achieve global sustainable chemicals management.
E.
Arctic Council
5.
The Arctic Council (www.arctic-council.org) is a high-level forum for intergovernmental
cooperation and coordination between the eight Arctic States, with the involvement of the Arctic
indigenous peoples. The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme is a group under the Arctic
Council responsible for continuing assessment of pollution and climate change issues in the Arctic. It
also coordinates the circumpolar programme to monitor the levels, trends and effects of long-range
transported contaminants (including persistent organic pollutants) and climate change and its impacts.
Its assessments have documented the challenges facing environmental protection and sustainable
development in the Arctic as a result of long-range transported pollutants and climate change. On the
basis of information provided by the Programme, the Arctic Council recognized in 2002 and 2009 the
need for further understanding of the combined effects of persistent organic pollutants and other
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environmental stressors, including climate change, on human health and the environment in the Arctic.
The Programme has a number of expert groups on climate change and persistent organic pollutants
that produce assessments for the Arctic Council and contribute scientific information to bodies
including the Stockholm Convention and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Several
experts from the Programme have been involved in the production of the present report.
F.
International POPs Elimination Network
6.
The International POPs Elimination Network, a public interest network of 700 organizations in
100 countries, has invested in and conducted chemical monitoring activities related to persistent
organic pollutants and other chemicals of concern since 2004. It has focused on generating analytical
data in developing countries and countries with economies in transition to assist the assessment and
environmentally sound management of chemicals in those countries. Initiatives have included
monitoring human breast milk for persistent organic pollutants on several continents and the
monitoring of persistent organic pollutants and unintentionally produced persistent organic pollutants
in chicken eggs in 17 countries. Its monitoring and assessment of persistent organic pollutants and
unintentionally produced persistent organic pollutants has been linked to, among other things,
inadequate waste management practices (including incineration) in these 17 countries.
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