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Transcript
CHAPTER 5 5.1 Learning refers to any enduring change in the way an organism responds based on its experience. Learning theories assume that experience shapes behavior, that learning is adaptive, and that only systematic experimentation can uncover laws of learning. The laws of association are fundamental to most accounts of learning: the laws of contiguity and similarity propose that stimuli are likely to become associated when they occur close together in time and/or resemble each other. 5.2 In classical conditioning, an environmental stimulus triggers (or leads to) a learned response, through pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a previously neutral conditioned stimulus. The result is a conditioned response, or learned reflex. Conditioned taste aversions are learned aversions to a taste associated with an unpleasant feeling (usually nausea). Conditioned emotional responses, including positive feelings associated with particular situations, events, or people, occur when a conditioned stimulus is paired with a stimulus that evokes an emotional response. 5.3 Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism learns to respond to stimuli that resemble the CS with a similar response. Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism learns to respond to a restricted range of stimuli. Extinction occurs when a CR is weakened by presentation of the CS without the UCS. Previously extinguished responses may reappear through a process known as spontaneous recovery. 5.5 Several factors influence classical conditioning, including the interstimulus interval (the time between presentation of the CS and the UCS), the order in which the CS and UCS are presented, the law of prediction (degree to which the presence of the CS is predictive of the US), the individual’s learning history (such as prior associations between the stimulus and other stimuli or responses), and prepared learning (the evolved tendency of some associations to be learned more readily than others). Blocking occurs when a previously learned association to a UCS inhibits learning of a new one. When a UCS has a history of repeated presentations without the CS, latent inhibition can slow down learning of the association. Paradoxical conditioning, a less common type of conditioning, occurs when the CR is opposite of the UCR. 5.6 Operant conditioning means learning from consequences. Operants are behaviors that are emitted rather than elicited by the environment. Whereas reinforcement increases the probability of a response, punishment decreases the probability that a response will recur. Positive reinforcement occurs when the environmental consequence (a reward or payoff) makes a behavior more likely to occur again. Negative reinforcement occurs when termination of an aversive stimulus makes a behavior more likely to recur. Likewise punishment can be negative or positive. Positive punishment occurs when the consequence is an aversive stimuli; negative punishment occurs when it is the removal of a pleasant stimuli. Superstitious behavior occurs when the learner erroneously associates a behavior and consequence. Punishment is frequently applied in ways that render it ineffective. Extinction in operant conditioning occurs if enough trials pass in which the operant is not followed by the consequence previously associated with it. 5.7 In everyday life, continuous reinforcement schedules (in which the consequence is the same each time an animal emits a behavior) are far less common than partial, or intermittent, reinforcement schedules (in which reinforcement occurs in some ratio or after certain intervals). In ratio schedules, rewards are presented after a certain number of responses and in interval schedules, they are presented after a certain period of time. The schedules are fixed if the number of responses or length of time are fixed, and variable if they are unpredicatable. A discriminative stimulus signals that particular contingencies of reinforcement are in effect, so that the organism only produces the behavior in the presence of the discriminative stimulus. 5.8 Learning occurs in a broader context than one behavior at a time. Humans and other animals learn that attaining one reinforcer may affect attainment of others. Behavioral economists study the resulting cost-benefit analyses. Cultural factors also influence operant conditioning, as different cultures rely on different operant procedures. Characteristics of the learner influence operant conditioning, such as prior behaviors in the animal’s repertoire, enduring characteristics of the learner (such as the tendency to respond with fear or avoidance in the face of aversive environmental events), and species-specific behavior (the tendency of particular species to produce particular responses). Shaping teaches a new behavior by rewarding incremental steps, while chaining does so by rewarding a sequence of previously learned behaviors. Operant conditioning can sometimes even be used to teach behaviors that are outside of the realm of normal ability or control, such as in biofeedback, when patients learn to gain some control over autonomous responses such as heartrate. 5.9 Stimuli can be reinforcing through drive-reduction (primary reinforcers), their associations to primary reinforcers (secondary reinforcers), and/or though eliciting emotions. The behavioral approach system (BAS) is associated with pleasure and approach, the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) with anxiety and avoidance, and the fight-flight system (FFS) with terror/rage and escape/aggression. Cognitive-social theory incorporates concepts of conditioning from behaviorism but adds cognition and social learning. Such work has demonstrated latent learning, insight in animals, the role of locus of control, expectancies, and explanatory styles (which can produce effects such as self-fulfilling prophecy and learned helplessness). 5.10 Social learning refers to learning that can occur, with or without reinforcement, through social interaction. Observational learning occurs as individuals learn by watching the behavior of others. Learning to reproduce behavior exhibited by a model is called modeling. Vicarious conditioning means learning by observing the consequences of a behavior for someone else. Tutelage occurs when people learn through direct instruction.