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Chapter XI
EMOTIONS
Emotions are the life force of the soul, the source of most of our values… the basics of most other
passions.
- Robert Solomon –
 THE NATURE OF EMOTIONS
Psychologists consider emotion as a response of the entire organism to a stimulus.
It is viewed not as a single entity but as a combined reaction of a person, involving physiological
changes, observable changes in behavior, and subjective experiences. Thus, emotion has been
generally defined as a complex or stirred-up state of the human being, reflected both in external
and internal bodily changes.
The word “emotion” comes from the Latin word “emovere” meaning “to move out” which
conveys the idea of an outward expression of something inside, which is one aspect of emotion.
The physiological changes associated with emotions are very complex. These changes
are concerned with the maintenance of the internal environment of the body, which includes such
factors as heart and pulse rate, temperature regulation, and blood pressure. Among the
observable changes in behavior are facial expressions, and bodily movements including gestures.
The subjective experiences include such feelings as pleasantness or unpleasantness and tension
or relaxation.
At birth, the only distinguishable emotion is general excitement, but with the maturation and
learning, a diversity of emotions appear. In showing the relations or making distinctions among
these diverse emotions, some psychologists have pointed out 3 ways in which these emotions
vary: intensity, similarity, and polarity (Cofer and Fitzgerald, 1975:19). Differences in intensity are
shown by the distinction we make between grief and sadness, between fear and panic, or between
annoyance and fury. The degree of similarity emotions have to one another is reflected in our
acceptance of the fact that joy and love are more emotions are opposite or polar to others, such as
joy is sadness, and love is to hate.
 ASPECTS OF EMOTIONS
To measure and identify emotional reactions, studies in psychology have subjected its 3
important aspects to analysis and investigation; namely:
1. Physiological changes in emotion
These changes are a significant part of any emotional reaction. An
emotionally upset individual is aroused all over and various reactions occur
throughout his body. Changes in the conditions of the internal organs, blood
chemistry, and brain waves result from the interaction of the receptors, muscles,
and nervous mechanisms.
2. Observable changes in behavior
Most of us manifest our emotional arousal through overt behavior
such as facial expressions, vocal expressions, and bodily movements. When we
observe emotions in other people, we usually pay more attention to the facial and
vocal expressions.
3. Subjective experiences in emotions
When a person gets emotionally aroused, the most obvious aspect of
his emotion is the feeling that he experiences. He may say he feels happy, elated,
afraid, sad or excited. Such an experience is a subjective event which only the
person who is experiencing the emotion can report on. In psychology, these
emtional feelings are referred to as the affective states or the pleasant-unpleasant
dimension of emotions.
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF EMOTIONS
There are four broad classes of emotional reactions: fear, anger, grief and love.
However, this does not mean that there are only four emotions and thus deny the existence of
other emotional states.
1. FEAR
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One of the most troublesome of all emotional reactions.
Associated with bodily sensations dues to the activation of the autonomic nervous
system.
Common and prominent physical manifestations : pounding of the hear, sinking feeling
in the stomach, trembling and shaking, weakness, faintness and tensions
Basic characteristic: the individual is not ready to react adequately which may be
attributed to the lack of technique for dealing successfully with a feared situation.
Fear of a specific object or situation may have been acquired through conditioning.
2. ANGER
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A primary occasion is when a goal-seeking activity is hindered.
Attacking is a possible reaction.
It begins as an emotional accompaniment of something else
It can be misdirected. If the aggression aroused by frustration cannot be directed
against the situation itself, it mat be displaced and vented upon a substitute.
3. DEPRESSIVE REACTIONS or GRIEF
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Situations are similar to those that produce anger.
The major difference is that there is more of the element of finality is depressive states
rather than in an anger situation.
4. LOVE
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Mainly involves a focusing of strong positive feelings on a person.
It can have a sexual desire as an important component, although people can feel love
without the sexual element.
It can be displaced from its original object and transferred to substitute or symbolic
objects.
* Young men may fall in love with women who resemble their mothers or vice
versa.
With infants, love grows from their relationship with their parents.
Love between individuals of the opposite sex has, through the ages, been often
characterized by a disruption in the behavior.
In the Law courts and newspapers, we see ample evidence that the emotion of love is
disorganizing. But not all aspects of love can be harmful.
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Sometimes, it is the cause of failure in an exam, a missed important meeting, lost
friendship, or quarrel with parents.
 THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF EMOTIONS
Emotions, as we have seen, involve complex and intricate relationships between body,
mind, and behavior. A number of viewpoints about the nature of emotions have emerged over
the years, yet there is no single, integrating, comprehensive theory which has relevance to all
its aspects.

2 Major Classification
1. Classical Viewpoints
The first commonly accepted viewpoint was the common sense view which holds that a
subjective state of fear or anger produces behavior changes. In short, emotions are felt first and
reaction follows.
A. JAMES-LANGE THEORY
 Founded in the late nineteenth century, by 2 psychologists, WILLIAM JAMES, a famous
American philosopher and psychologist and CARL G. LANGE, a Danish physiologist
and psychologist.
 According to this theory, we perceive a situation and then give our reaction and holds
that physiological responses rise to our cognitive experience of emotion.
 An emotional experience follows a sequence of “stimulus-bodily response-awareness.
(“We are sad because we cried”) Our body responds to a perception of an event before
we experience the emotion:
Perception of
emotion-producing
stimulus
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Activation of
visceral and
skeletal responses
Feedback from bodily
responses to the
brain, producing
experience of
emotion
The feelings are a consequence of behavior.
This theory is important because of the emphasis it placed upon bodily changes as a
vital aspect of emotion.
B. CANNON-BARD THEORY {hypothalamic theory}
 A rival theory as an objection to the James-Lange theory
 Presented by WALTER B. CANNON and was later elaborated by L. BARD, his student.
 The “hypothalamus”, which is part of the brain’s central core, has the central role in
emotion.
 This theory proposes that the hypothalamus is the “seat of emotions” and that, in
response to a stimulus from the outside, the hypothalamus sent impulses to both the
cortex and viscera; the experience of emotion coincide with the arousal produced.
Perception of
emotion-producing
stimulus
Processing of
stimulus by the
hypothalamus
which
simultaneously
send messages to
the cortex and
other parts of the
body
Messages to cortex
produce experience
of emotion
Messages from
hypothalamus
activate visceral and
skeletal responses
C. COGNITIVE THEORY OF EMOTION
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Emphasized by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer
They theorized that our perception of our emotional state is influenced by our
interpretation of the situation as well as by physiology, which is reflected by the JamesLange Theory.
In emphasizing the role of the brain in interpreting and labeling emotional experiences,
they reflect the Cannon-Bard Theory.
This theory is illustrated by Hilgard (1983) as information integration:
COGNITIVE FACTORS
Memory of past experiences and
appraisal of current situations
give rise to additional
information inputs
Inputs to brain from internal
organs and skeletal muscles
STIMULUS FACTORS
Inputs to brain from
external stimuli impinging
on the sensory system
Conscious experience of emotion
Integration of input from 3 sources
2. Recent Theoretical Approaches
A. Activation Theory of Emotion {Lindsey}
 Holds that emotion is associated with the activity of the reticular activating system
(RAS) which is part of the brain stem
 A continuum is seen to exist from coma and sleep at the low end of the scale, through
waking and attentive behaviors
 This continuum reflects the degree to which we are activated to action.
B. Arousal-Cognition Theory
 can be interpreted by a person as joy or anger, or any other emotional state, depending
on the situation.
 It assumes that there is only one kind of physical excitement or arousal, but the various
states of arousal are labeled according to our knowledge or cognition of the emotionproducing situation.
 It suggests that the problem of emotion is essentially one of labeling
.
C. Theory of Limbic Functions
 First drawn by Papez in 1937 and elaborated later by Paul McLean in 1958.
 They view that the regions of the limbic system are intricately involved in our emotional
experience and behavior.
 It holds that while the cerebral cortex is engaged in intellectual interpretation in terms of
verbal and related symbols, the limbic system makes the interpretation in terms of
emotional feeling that goes with sensation arising from the internal organs of the body;
hence, it plays a vital role in emotional experience (Sartin, 1973:331).
 EMOTIONAL CONTROL
Emotional control does not mean inhibition or repression of our emotions. Rather, it means
directing and managing emotional experiences such that they will not have negative
consequences. Achieving emotional control is one indication of emotional maturity.
To achieve emotional control, Guilford (1964:192-194) gives the following suggestions:
1.
Avoid emotion-provoking situations. Emotional responses are caused by stimuli. If
a child is exposed to harrowing stories or exciting movies on TV, he will have less
chances of putting his emotions under control. At best, children should be exposed to
these in small doses.
2.
Change the emotion-provoking situations. Attitudes may be changed, as in making
friends out of enemies. Hate may turn into love. Sometimes, removal of the source of
the emotion may help.
3.
Increase skills for coping with the situation. Many emotions arise because of
inadequacy or inability to achieve goals promptly. These can be prevented by
development of the necessary skills and abilities to cope with the situation. Overprotected children develop feelings of inadequacy or inferiority. Systematic practice in
the arts of conversation, social dancing and other activities will develop the individual’s
social personality. Efforts should be directed toward development of self-confidence
and independence.
4.
Re-interpret the situation. Sometimes the oversensitive type of person needs to
analyze the actions and words of others. He has to be convinced that his fears are
groundless. Helping him achieve his goal will build his ego and restore his selfconfidence.
5.
Keep working toward your goal. It is natural for people to meet difficulties in the
solution of problems. Helping the person realize that problem-solving involves trial and
error will keep him emotionally sound. Encourage the individual to keep working
towards his goal. A few wrong steps should not deter him from reaching his goals.
6.
Find substitute outlets. Substitute goals may give temporary relief. They may not
solve the emotional problem, but they may lessen the tension. Teach the individual to
sublimate desires and goals.
7.
Develop a sense of humor. Laughter often solves an emotional problem to
satisfaction. The person who has a good sense of humor makes light of tensions. The
emotionally mature person should be able to laugh at himself and his follies. He
should be able to laugh off his tensions.
Reference:
Bustos, et.al. (1999). Introduction to Psychology. 3rd ed.
Katha Publishing
Gaerlan, Josefina. et.al. General Psychology, 5th edition.
Philippines: Ken, Incorporated. 2000.