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AP BIOLOGY – FALL FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE – WHAT TO KNOW Chemistry • Covalent, polar covalent, ionic bonding • O & N as electronegative atoms • Geometry, Lewis structure, polarity of H2O • Biologically important properties of H2O • Ionization of water; relationships of pH, [H+], pOH, [OH-] • Hydrophobic/hydrophilic interactions Organic Chemistry & Macromolecules • Bonding properties of C Naming of organic compounds • Organic functional groups; methyl, hydroxyl/alcohol/carboxyl, amino, carbonyl, aldehyde, ketone, phosphate, sulfhydryl • Macromolecules categories and their monomers & polymers • Hydrolysis vs. dehydration reactions • Essential structures and functions of carbohydrates, triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, amino acids, proteins, nucleotides/nucleic acids • Saturated vs. unsaturated fatty acids • Categories of amino acid R groups • Levels of protein structure, and what is responsible for each Cell Structure • Cell = basic unit of life • Cell theory • Prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic cells • Ribosomes • Surface area : volume ratio • Eukaryotic cell structures & their functions: • Nucleus, nuclear envelope, chromatin, nucleolus • Free vs. bound ribosomes • Endomembrane System: rough vs. smooth ER, transport vesicles, Golgi apparatus, lysosome; food, contractile and central vacuoles • Mitochondrion • Chloroplast • Peroxisome • Cytoskeleton: microfilaments, centrosomes/centrioles, cilia, flagella,“9+2” 9 + 0 Cell wall Intercellular junctions: plasmodesmata, tight & gap junctions, desmosomes • Membrane structure: phospholipids, cholesterol, membrane proteins, fluid mosaic model, amphipathic, membrane carbohydrates • Concentration gradients • Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion • Osmosis & water balance • Carrier & channel proteins • Active transport: Na+ - K+ & proton pumps • Cotransport vs. counter transport • Hypotonic, isotonic, & hypertonic solutions • Endocytosis: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, & receptor-mediated endocytosis • Exocytosis Metabolism • Free energy, ∆G • Activation energy • Exergonic vs. Endergonic reactions • Metabolism = anabolism + catabolism • Energy coupling • Enzymes: enzyme - substrate complex, active site, induced fit, cofactors, coenzymes, competitive vs. noncompetitive inhibition, allosteric regulation DNA Structure & Replication • Double helix model • A, T (U), G, C • 5’ phosphate, 3’- HO Hydrogen bounded base pairs; antiparallel, sugar—phosphate… • Bacterial transformation • Bacteriophages Biotechnology • Recombinant DNA • Transgenic Organisms • Plasmids, cloning & expression vectors, restriction enzymes, restriction fragments, sticky ends, DNA ligase • Gel electrophoresis • Column chromatography • Polymerase chain reaction • Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) • Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy • The difference between fermentation and cellular respiration • The role of glycolysis in oxidizing glucose to two molecules of pyruvate • The process that brings pyruvate from the cytosol into the mitochondria and introduces it into the citric acid cycle. • How the process of chemiosmosis utilizes the electrons from NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP • Catabolic/ anabolic respiration • Aerobic respiration • Redox reaction • ATP synthase • Proton motive force • Chemiosmosis • Oxidative phosphorylation • Anaerobic • Alcohol/ lactic acid fermentation • Facultative anaerobes • Biosynthesis Chapter 10: Photosynthesis • How photosystems convert solar energy to chemical energy • How linear electron flow in the light reactions result in the formation of ATP, NADPH, and O2 • How chemiosmosis generates ATP in the light reactions • How the Calvin Cycle uses the energy molecules of the light reactions to produce G3P • The metabolic adaptations of C4 and CAM plants to arid, dry regions • Autotrophs • Heterotrophs • Chloroplasts • Mesophyll • Stroma • Thylakoid • Chlorophyll • Stomata • Light reactions • Photophosphorylation • Absorption/action spectrum • The photosystems • Reaction center • Primary electron acceptor • • Linear/cyclic electron flow Calvin cycle→ RuBP, G3P Chapter 35: Plant structure, Growth, and Development You Must Know • The function of xylem and phloem tissue. • The specific functions of tracheids, vessels, sieve-tube elements, and companion cells. Concept: The plant body has a hierarchy of organs, tissues, and cells • Root system • Mycorrhizae • Shoot system • Stems • Terminal bud • Axillary buds • Leaves • Dermal tissue • Vascular tissue • Xylem • Phloem • Ground tissue • Parenchyma cells • Collenchyma cells • Sclerenchyma cells • Xylem cells • Tracheids • Vessels • Phloem cells • Sieve-tube elements • Companion cells Chapter 36: Resource Acquisition and Transport in Vascular Plants The role of passive transport, active transport, and cotransport in plant transportation The role of diffusion, active transport, and bulk flow in the movement of water and nutrients in plants How the transpiration cohesion-tension mechanism explains water movement in plants How pressure flow explains translocation Transport protein Proton pump Cotransport Water potential Aquaporins Bulk flow Mycorrhizae Endodermis Transpiration Root pressure Sugar source/ sugar sink Chapter 17: From Gene to Protein Ribozyme Significance of introns and exons Transcription and translation ( Initiation to termination) RNA and DNA polymerase ( compare and contrast) Transcription pre mRNA to mRNA RNA processing cap and tail Analysis of genetic: codon, anticodon, amino acid to protein Translation – protein synthesis (A/P/E) Site TATA box Chapter 18: Regulation of Gene Expression Cyclic AMP DNA methylation Lac Operon TRP Operon Operon , promoter, inducer, repressor, operator, and corepressor How are genes expressed