Download Advertising

99 學年度第二學期 全程英文「廣告入門」 (Introduction to Advertising)
廣告系：週四 第 3、4 節 地點：文友
課程根據 Sean Brierley, The Advertising Handbook （廣告教科書）, London and
New York: Routledge, 1995, pp. 293
*每一個同學
（作為報告小組的成員）需準備一份有關課程內容（來自 Sean Brierley
的 The Advertising Handbook /廣告教科書）的英語口頭報告（以 10 分鐘為標準）
；
所以先有英文閱讀而後有英語口頭報告的兩個部分。除外，期中和期末考時，同
學用英文考筆試。
Sean Brierley
Sean Brierley's Summary
（http://uk.linkedin.com/pub/sean-brierley/5/28/668）
Group publisher with over 20 years experience in publishing and editorial. Now managing
Euromoney's specialist finance division, previously content director for Emap Middle East
(EME) managing content across a portfolio of brands and products. I also ran the profit
and loss for EME's two leading Middle East business brands. An ex-editor of The Lawyer,
The Engineer, Finance Week, Middle East Economic Digest(MEED) and a former deputy
editor and columnist for Marketing Week. Also a former university lecturer at LJMU and
author of a student textbook on the advertising industry.
Current
Business Group Manager at Euromoney Institutional Investor
Location
London, United Kingdom
Past
• Content Director at Emap Middle East
• Editorial Director at MEED
1
• Associate publisher at Centaur Communications
Education
• The University of Manchester
Euromoney Institutional Investor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Euromoney Institutional Investor PLC
Website
www.euromoneyplc.com
Euromoney Institutional Investor PLC (LSE: ERM) is one of Europe's largest business and
financial magazine publishers which has interests in financial publishing and event
organisation. It is a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index. It is 70% owned by the Daily Mail
and General Trust Group.
Contents
• 1 History
• 2 Operations
• 3 References
• 4 External links
History
The company was founded by Patrick Sergeant in 1969 as an international
business-to-business media group focused primarily on the international finance sector.[2]
Patrick Sargeant continued to manage the business until 1985 when he became chairman.
He retired as chairman in September 1992 when he was appointed president and
non-executive director.[2] The Company was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in
2
1986. Recent acquisitions have included Internet Securities in 1999,[3] Hedge Fund
Intelligence in 2003[4] and Metal Bulletin PLC in 2006.[5]
Operations
The Company is currently the market leader on international financial publishing and event
organisation. As well as its flagship title Euromoney Magazine, the company owns close to
100 international specialist magazines in finance, energy, aviation, pharmaceuticals and
law. Euromoney trains international bankers, lawyers and securities specialists around the
world, runs international conferences, and is very strong in electronic publishing. With
offices worldwide, its shares are listed in London and Luxembourg. Journal and magazine
publishers owned by EII include Compliance Reporter[6], Engel Publishing Partners for
Med Ad News, LatinFinance and R&D Directions.[7]
It publishes more than 100 magazines, newsletters and journals. It also runs an extensive
portfolio of conferences, seminars and training courses and is a leading provider of
electronic information and data covering international finance and emerging markets.
References
1.
^ a b c Annual Report 2009
2.
^ a b Euromoney Business Profile, FT.com
3.
^ Euromoney Publications to buy Internet Securities Inc
4.
^ Euromoney buys publisher for £11m
5.
^ Euromoney wins Metal Bulletin battle
6.
^ Compliance Reporter companies information
7.
^ Canon Communications Pharmaceutical Media Group companies information
The Advertising Handbook
Sean Brierley
Routledge 2002
£15.99
3
320pp
ISBN 0415243920
Sean Brierley provides a comprehensive introduction to the practice of
advertising. The book includes detailed exploration of how markets are created,
the role of the advertising agency, the relationship between advertisers, their
clients and the media, media planning and buying, media research, principles
and techniques of persuasion and effectiveness measurement. It is densely
packed with facts, figures, statistics, acronyms, abbreviations, case studies,
profiles, illustrations, suggestions for 'workshop' exercises, a glossary and
guide to useful websites. There is a summary outlining the main details and
argument at the end of each chapter, providing a helpful overview of the not
entirely digestible contents.
Brierley has brought to this book his experience and understanding as
practitioner (he was Deputy Editor of Marketing Week and Editor of The
Lawyer and is currently head of new product development at Centaur
Communications) and as teacher (he lectured at Liverpool John Moores
University in mass communication). He is anxious to stress that although there
are a number of academic works on advertising, there are few that write from
the advertiser's point of view. However, this book is not an uncritical tribute to
the advertising industry by any means. Brierley describes the convoluted world
of advertising with all its confusing complexities and alarming simplicities with
a cool and objective eye.
This is not an easy read - it is after all a resource and reference handbook - but
it is a fascinating one. I found myself, naive schoolteacher that I am, repeatedly
shouting out loud, 'I didn't know that!' (e.g. Josiah Wedgwood was one of the
first mass advertisers) or, 'I don't believe it!' (Hush Puppies were the ultimate
fashion statement among trendy kids in Manhattan). The description of the
disquieting nature of advertising regulation -despite the number of regulatory
bodies - provides another jolt to the innocent pedagogue. Brierley says that he
is not claiming, "to provide a 'missing link' in academic analysis" but I have not
found a media studies resource that tackles the contemporary marketing
issues contained in chapters 1-8 of the book in such an authoritative and
informed way.
Later chapters on the principles and techniques of persuasion, formats, style
and language are more familiar ground to the students and teachers of media
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studies. The wealth of information means time and concentration is needed to
extract material suitable for presentation to students. As advertising is affected
by all the economic and political factors described in the book it is difficult to
decide on the major emphases. As I read it, I found myself automatically
translating the facts, figures, acronyms into flow charts, spider diagrams and
crib sheets for classroom use. These could be 'fleshed-out' with the excellent and sometimes shocking - case studies and examples.
Reading, digesting and reviewing this book was hardly effortless but I'm glad I
did it - at least I can now tell my ASA (Advertising Standards Authority) from
my ISBA (Institute of Practitioners in Advertising). I would certainly recommend
this book to media teachers who wish broaden their insight into the fact and
function of advertising and the way it impinges on so many other aspects of the
mass media.
© 2003 Tina R Stockman - PT Guidance, Teacher of Art/Media Studies,Harlaw
Academy, Aberdeen
（http://www.mediaed.org.uk/posted_documents/advertising.htm）
Advertising
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
（Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising）
This article is about the form of communication. For the British musician, see Gaye Advert.
For other uses, see Advertiser (disambiguation).
For content guidelines on the use of advertising in Wikipedia articles, see Wikipedia:Spam.
For a proposal on advertising about Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Advertisements.
5
A Coca-Cola advertisement from the 1890s
Marketing
Key concepts
Product• Pricing
Distribution• Service• Retail
Brand management
Account-based marketing
Marketing ethics
Marketing effectiveness
Market research
Market segmentation
Marketing strategy
Marketing management
Market dominance
Promotional content
Advertising• Branding• Underwriting
Direct marketing• Personal Sales
Product placement• Publicity
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Sales promotion• Sex in advertising
Loyalty marketing• Premiums• Prizes
Promotional media
Printing• Publication
Broadcasting• Out-of-home
Internet marketing• Point of sale
Promotional merchandise
Digital marketing• In-game
In-store demonstration
Word-of-mouth marketing
Brand Ambassador• Drip Marketing
This box: view · talk · edit
Advertising is a form of communication intended to persuade an audience (viewers,
readers or listeners) to purchase or take some action upon products, ideas, or services. It
includes the name of a product or service and how that product or service could benefit the
consumer, to persuade a target market to purchase or to consume that particular brand（1）.
These messages are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via various media.
Advertising can also serve to communicate an idea to a large number of people in an
attempt to convince them to take a certain action.
Commercial advertisers often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or
services through branding, which involves the repetition of an image or product name in an
effort to associate related qualities with the brand in the minds of consumers.
Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a consumer
product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations and
governmental agencies. Nonprofit organizations may rely on free modes of persuasion,
such as a public service announcement.
Modern advertising developed with the rise of mass production in the late 19th and early
20th centuries. Mass media can be defined as any media meant to reach a mass amount of
people. Different types of media can be used to deliver these messages, including
traditional media such as newspapers, magazines, television, radio, outdoor or direct mail;
or new media such as websites and text messages.
In 2010, spending on advertising was estimated at more than $300 billion in the United
States[1] and $500 billion worldwide[citation needed].
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Internationally, the largest ("big four") advertising conglomerates are Interpublic,
Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP.
Contents




1 History
o 1.1 Public service advertising
2 Marketing mix
3 Advertising theory
4 Types of advertising
4.1 Digital advertising
o 4.2 Physical advertising
5 Sales promotions
6 Media and advertising approaches
7 Current trends
o 7.1 Rise in new media
o 7.2 Niche marketing
o 7.3 Crowdsourcing
o 7.4 Global advertising
o 7.5 Foreign public messaging
o



7.6 Diversification
o 7.7 New technology
o 7.8 Advertising education
8 Criticisms
9 Regulation
10 Advertising research
11 See also
12 References
13 Bibliography
14 External links
o







History
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Edo period advertising flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan
Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages
and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient
Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and
Ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation
of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa,
and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art
paintings that date back to 4000 BC.[2] History tells us that Out-of-home advertising and
billboards are the oldest forms of advertising.
As the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general populace was
unable to read, signs that today would say cobbler, miller, tailor or blacksmith would use
an image associated with their trade such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a
horse shoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city
square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town
criers) to announce their whereabouts for the convenience of the customers.
As education became an apparent need and reading, as well as printing, developed
advertising expanded to include handbills. In the 17th century advertisements started to
appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used
mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with
advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after as
disease ravaged Europe. However, false advertising and so-called "quack" advertisements
became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content.
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As the economy expanded during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the
United States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of
mail-order advertising.
In June 1836, French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its
pages, allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and
the formula was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer established a
predecessor to advertising agencies in Boston.[3] Around the same time, in France,
Charles-Louis Havas extended the services of his news agency, Havas to include
advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group to organize. At first, agencies
were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers. N. W. Ayer & Son was the first
full-service agency to assume responsibility for advertising content. N.W. Ayer opened in
1869, and was located in Philadelphia.[3]
An 1895 advertisement for a weight gain product.
At the turn of the century, there were few career choices for women in business; however,
advertising was one of the few. Since women were responsible for most of the purchasing
done in their household, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight
during the creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was
created by a woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards, the
advertisement featured a couple with the message "The skin you love to touch".[4]
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Advertisements of hotels in Pichilemu, Chile from 1935.
In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment
manufacturers and retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to
consumers. As time passed, many non-profit organizations followed suit in setting up their
own radio stations, and included: schools, clubs and civic groups.[5] When the practice of
sponsoring programs was popularised, each individual radio program was usually
sponsored by a single business in exchange for a brief mention of the business' name at the
beginning and end of the sponsored shows. However, radio station owners soon realised
they could earn more money by selling sponsorship rights in small time allocations to
multiple businesses throughout their radio station's broadcasts, rather than selling the
sponsorship rights to single businesses per show.
A print advertisement for the 1913 issue of the Encyclopædia Britannica
This practice was carried over to television in the late 1940s and early 1950s. A fierce
battle was fought between those seeking to commercialise the radio and people who argued
that the radio spectrum should be considered a part of the commons – to be used only
non-commercially and for the public good. The United Kingdom pursued a public funding
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model for the BBC, originally a private company, the British Broadcasting Company, but
incorporated as a public body by Royal Charter in 1927. In Canada, advocates like Graham
Spry were likewise able to persuade the federal government to adopt a public funding
model, creating the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. However, in the United States, the
capitalist model prevailed with the passage of the Communications Act of 1934 which
created the Federal Communications Commission.[5] However, the U.S. Congress did
require commercial broadcasters to operate in the "public interest, convenience, and
necessity".[6] Public broadcasting now exists in the United States due to the 1967 Public
Broadcasting Act which led to the Public Broadcasting Service and National Public Radio.
In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice of selling
advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors
for many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time
to several businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television
industry in the United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single
sponsor shows, such as The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the sponsors
exercised great control over the content of the show—up to and including having one's
advertising agency actually writing the show. The single sponsor model is much less
prevalent now, a notable exception being the Hallmark Hall of Fame.
The 1960s saw advertising transform into a modern approach in which creativity was
allowed to shine, producing unexpected messages that made advertisements more tempting
to consumers' eyes. The Volkswagen ad campaign—featuring such headlines as "Think
Small" and "Lemon" (which were used to describe the appearance of the car)—ushered in
the era of modern advertising by promoting a "position" or "unique selling proposition"
designed to associate each brand with a specific idea in the reader or viewer's mind. This
period of American advertising is called the Creative Revolution and its archetype was
William Bernbach who helped create the revolutionary Volkswagen ads among others.
Some of the most creative and long-standing American advertising dates to this period.
The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly
MTV. Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of
advertising: the consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a
by-product or afterthought. As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent,
specialty channels emerged, including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as
QVC, Home Shopping Network, and ShopTV Canada.
Marketing through the Internet opened new frontiers for advertisers and contributed to the
"dot-com" boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue,
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offering everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, a
number of websites including the search engine Google, started a change in online
advertising by emphasizing contextually relevant, unobtrusive ads intended to help, rather
than inundate, users. This has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of
interactive advertising.
Advertisement for a live radio broadcast, sponsored by a milk company and published in
the Los Angeles Times on May 6, 1930
The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes
in media. For example, in the US in 1925, the main advertising media were newspapers,
magazines, signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of
GDP was about 2.9 percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising
media. Nonetheless, advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower—about 2.4
percent.[7]
A recent advertising innovation is "guerrilla marketing", which involve unusual approaches
such as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are
covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to
become part of the advertising message.Guerrilla advertising is becoming increasing more
popular with a lot of companies. This type of advertising is unpredictable and innovative,
which causes consumers to buy the product or idea. This reflects an increasing trend of
interactive and "embedded" ads, such as via product placement, having consumers vote
13
through text messages, and various innovations utilizing social network services such as
Facebook.
Public service advertising
The advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to
inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as HIV/AIDS,
political ideology, energy conservation and deforestation.
Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of
reaching and motivating large audiences. "Advertising justifies its existence when used in
the public interest—it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes."
Attributed to Howard Gossage by David Ogilvy.
Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause
marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of
sophisticated advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated
with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and
initiatives.
In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent
upon the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet these
requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their required public
service announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage
of viewers are watching, leaving more day and prime time commercial slots available for
high-paying advertisers.
Public service advertising reached its height during World Wars I and II under the
direction of more than one government. During WWII President Roosevelt commissioned
the creation of The War Advertising Council (now known as the Ad Council) which is the
nation's largest developer of PSA campaigns on behalf of government agencies and
non-profit organizations, including the longest-running PSA campaign, Smokey Bear.
Marketing mix（營銷組合）
Main article: Marketing mix
The marketing mix has been the key concept to advertising. The marketing mix was
suggested by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s. The marketing mix consists of
14
four basic elements called the four P’s Product is the first P representing the actual
product. Price represents the process of determining the value of a product. Place
represents the variables of getting the product to the consumer like distribution channels,
market coverage and movement organization. The last P stands for Promotion which is the
process of reaching the target market and convincing them to go out and buy the product.[8]
The term "marketing mix" was coined in 1953 by Neil Borden in his American Marketing
Association presidential address. However, this was actually a reformulation of an earlier
idea by his associate, James Culliton, who in 1948 described the role of the marketing
manager as a "mixer of ingredients", who sometimes follows recipes prepared by others,
sometimes prepares his own recipe as he goes along, sometimes adapts a recipe from
immediately available ingredients, and at other times invents new ingredients no one else
has tried.[1] A prominent marketer, E. Jerome McCarthy, proposed a Four P classification in
1960, which has seen wide use. The Four P's concept is explained in most marketing
textbooks and classes.
Contents
[hide]

1 Four P's

2 Extended Marketing Mix (3 Ps)
3 Four Cs (1) in 7Cs compass model
4 Four Cs (2)
5 References
6 External links




Four P's
Elements of the marketing mix are often referred to as the "Four P's":

Product - It is a tangible object or an intangible service that is mass produced or
manufactured on a large scale with a specific volume of units. Intangible products
are service based like the tourism industry & the hotel industry or codes-based
products like cellphone load and credits. Typical examples of a mass produced
15
tangible object are the motor car and the disposable razor. A less obvious but
ubiquitous mass produced service is a computer operating system. Packaging also
needs to be taken into consideration. Every product is subject to a life-cycle
including a growth phase followed by an eventual period of decline as the product
approaches market saturation. To retain its competitiveness in the market, product
differentiation is required and is one of the strategies to differentiate a product
from its competitors.


Price – The price is the amount a customer pays for the product. The business
may increase or decrease the price of product if other stores have the same product.
Place – Place represents the location where a product can be purchased. It is often

referred to as the distribution channel. It can include any physical store as well as
virtual stores on the Internet.
Promotion represents all of the communications that a marketer may use in the
marketplace. Promotion has four distinct elements: advertising, public relations,
personal selling and sales promotion. A certain amount of crossover occurs when
promotion uses the four principal elements together, which is common in film
promotion. Advertising covers any communication that is paid for, from cinema
commercials, radio and Internet adverts through print media and billboards. Public
relations are where the communication is not directly paid for and includes press
releases, sponsorship deals, exhibitions, conferences, seminars or trade fairs and
events. Word of mouth is any apparently informal communication about the
product by ordinary individuals, satisfied customers or people specifically engaged
to create word of mouth momentum. Sales staff often plays an important role in
word of mouth and Public Relations (see Product above).
Any organization, before introducing its products or services into the market; conducts a
market survey. The sequence of all 'P's as above is very much important in every stage of
product life cycle Introduction, Growth, Maturity and Decline.
Extended Marketing Mix (3 Ps)
More recently, three more Ps have been added to the marketing mix namely People,
Process and Physical Evidence. This marketing mix is known as Extended Marketing Mix.

People: All people involved with consumption of a service are important. For
example workers, management, consumers etc. It also defines the market
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segmentation, mainly demographic segmentation. It addresses particular class of


people for whom the product or service is made available.
Process: Procedure, mechanism and flow of activities by which services are used.
Also the 'Procedure' how the product will reach the end user.
Physical Evidence: The marketing strategy should include effectively
communicating their satisfaction to potential customers.
Four Cs (1) in 7Cs compass model
A formal approach to this customer-focused marketing mix is known as Four Cs
(Commodity, Cost, Channel, Communication) in “7Cs compass model.” Koichi
Shimizu proposed a four Cs classification in 1973. [2] [3]
This system is basically the four Ps [4] renamed and reworded to provide a customer focus.
The four Cs Model provides a demand/customer centric version alternative to the
well-known four Ps supply side model (product, price, place, promotion) of marketing
management.The Four Cs model is more consumer-oriented and attempts to better fit the
movement from mass marketing to symbiotic marketing.
1. Commodity:(Original meaning of Latin: Commodus=convenient)the product for
the consumers or citizens.a commodity can also be described as an raw material
such as; oil,metal ores and wheat, the price of these tend to change on a daily basis,
due to the demand and supply of these commodities.
2. Cost:(Original meaning of Latin: Constare= It makes sacrifices)producing cost,
selling cost, purchasing cost and social cost.
3. Channel:(Original meaning is a Canal)Flow of commodity: marketing channels.
4. Communication:(Original meaning of Latin:Communio=sharing of meaning)
marketing communication: It doesn't promote the sales.
(Framework of ７Cs compass model)



(C1): Corporation and competitor: The core of 4Cs is corporation and organization,
while the core of 4Ps is customers who are the targets for attacks or defenses.
(C2): Commodity, (C3): Cost, (C4): Channel, (C5): Communication
(C6): Consumer (Needle of compass to Consumer)
The factors related to customers can be explained by the first character of four directions
marked on the compass model: N = Needs, W = Wants, S = Security and E = Education
(consumer education).
17

(C7): Circumstances (Needle of compass to Circumstances )
In addition to the customer, there are various uncontrollable external environmental factors
encircling the companies. Here it can also be explained by the first character of the four
directions marked on the compass model --- N = National and International C, W=Weather,
S = Social and Cultural C, E = Economic (Circumstances).
Four Cs (2)
Robert F. Lauterborn proposed a four Cs(2) classification in 1993.[5] The Four Cs model is
more consumer-oriented and attempts to better fit the movement from mass marketing to
niche marketing. The Product part of the Four Ps model is replaced by Consumer or
Consumer Models, shifting the focus to satisfying the consumer needs. Another C
replacement for Product is Capable. By defining offerings as individual capabilities that
when combined and focused to a specific industry, creates a custom solution rather than
pigeon-holing a customer into a product. Pricing is replaced by Cost reflecting the total
cost of ownership. Many factors affect Cost, including but not limited to the customer's
cost to change or implement the new product or service and the customer's cost for not
selecting a competitor's product or service. Placement is replaced by Convenience. With
the rise of internet and hybrid models of purchasing, Place is becoming less relevant.
Convenience takes into account the ease of buying the product, finding the product, finding
information about the product, and several other factors. Finally, the Promotions feature is
replaced by Communication which represents a broader focus than simply Promotions.
Communications can include advertising, public relations, personal selling, viral
advertising, and any form of communication between the firm and the consumer.
References
1. ^ Banting, Peter; Ross, Randolph E.. "SpringerLink - Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science, Volume 1, Number 1". SpringerLink.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/mn58860185200184/. Retrieved 2010-11-12.
2. ^ [Koichi Shimizu (2009) "Advertising Theory and Strategies,"16th edition, Souseisha
Book Company. (Japanese)]
3. ^ [Koichi Shimizu (2003)"Symbiotic Marketing Strategy,"4th edition, Souseisha Book
Company.(Japanese)]
4. ^ [ E. Jerome McCarthy (1975)”Basic Marketing: A Managerial Approach," fifth edition,
Richard D. Irwin, Inc., p.37.]
18
5. ^ Don E. Schullz, Stanley I. Tannenbaum, Robert F. Lauterborn(1993)“Integrated
Marketing Communications,”NTC Business Books, a division of NTC Publishing Group.
營銷組合（Marketing mix），是市場營銷的基礎概念或模型，指一系列營銷工作者所能
影響和操作的市場營銷變數和就此所擬就和實施的營銷戰略。此模型強調以各種不同因
素的「組合」為途徑來實現公司和消費者的目標。該模型由內爾·波登（Neil Borden）於
1964 年提出，1949 年他第一次使用了「營銷組合」這個詞彙。
目錄
[隱藏]

1 市場營銷策略
o 1.1 產品 (Product)
o
o
o
o
o
o


1.2 價格 (Price)
1.3 推廣 (Promotion)
1.4 通路 (Place & Distribution)
1.5 新的 3Ps
1.6 作為從消費者視角出發的 4Cs
1.7 7P
2 批評評論
3 參見
市場營銷策略
主條目：營銷組合
營銷組合的四個因素常稱作 4P，即：

產品（Product)

價格 (Price)

推廣 (Promotion)

通路與配銷 (Place & Distribution)
這四個因素應用到營銷過程中，就形成了四方面的營銷策略,加上政治(Politics)和公共關
係(Public)，是為 6P。
19
1981 年布姆斯（Booms）和比特納（Bitner）建議在傳統市場營銷理論 4Ps 的基礎上增加
三個「服務性的 P」，即：人員(People)、流程(Process)、環境(或是實體環境 Physical
evidence)。
根據與市場競爭對手對抗的需要而制定富有競爭力的產品、價格、渠道和促銷政策。這
一時期誕生了著名的 4P 理論。當時還是大眾媒體盛行的時代，依靠大眾媒體促進銷售，
無差異化策略成為這一階段的明顯特徵。
產品 (Product)
產品策略主要研究新產品開發，產品生命周期，品牌,包裝，服務營銷等，是價格策略，
促銷策略和分銷策略的基礎。
價格 (Price)
價格策略又稱定價策略，主要研究產品的定價目標和方法以及調價等的市場營銷工具
推廣 (Promotion)
推廣是將組織與產品訊息傳播給目標市場之有計畫性的行銷活動，它主要的焦點在於與
消費者溝通。
推廣的形式(推廣要素)則包括了廣告宣傳、公共關係(PR)、促銷(SP)活動、人員銷售(PS)、
口碑操作..等，透過推廣，使企業得以讓消費者知曉、瞭解、喜愛進而購買產品，推廣
的強度及其計畫是否得宜，足以影響或操縱產品的知名度、形象、銷售量，乃至於企業
的品牌形象。
有了推廣，消費者才可得知產品提供何種利益、價格多少、可以到什麼地方購買及如何
購買等，而這些消費者反應會進一步協助推動其他行銷組合(產品、價格、通路)做修正
調整。
通路 (Place & Distribution)
又稱渠道策略，是指為了達到產品分銷目的而起用的銷售管道。它代表企業（機構）在
將自身產品送抵最終消費者之前，所制定的與各類分銷商之間的貿易關係、成本分攤和
利益分配方式的綜合體系。這裡的分銷商既包含批發商，也包含零售商，甚至包含物流
配送商，或是公司業務人員直接對消費者銷售，和傳直銷——或名多層次傳銷公司的直
銷人員及其組織架構。
企業制定分銷政策的目的是：讓產品更順暢地到達顧客手中，既要保證分銷成本低廉，
又要保證顧客對送貨期、送貨量、裝配服務、疑難咨詢等方面的要求。
20
在產品日益豐富的情況下，分銷政策可能變得越來越難制定，因為相對於產品和品牌的
過量，分銷商則顯得稀少，因而後者擁有了大量討價還價的權力，力圖從製造商或上游
企業那裡獲得更大的利益分成比例。
零售商在最近 10 年的表現尤其令人矚目，它們不僅從事零售，也開始插手於產品的上
游生產過程，並以自己的店舖名稱或獨創名稱作為自己所產新品的品牌——即自有品牌
（private brand/label），或叫店舖品牌（store brand/label）。這更深地威脅到了純粹的製
造企業的利潤空間，當然也大大增加了後者制定分銷策略的難度。
新的 3Ps

人員（Personal Sales)
所有的人都直接或間接地被捲入某種服務的消費過程中，這是 7P 營銷組合很重要的一
個觀點。知識工作者、白領僱員、管理人員以及部分消費者將額外的價值增加到了既有
的社會總產品或服務的供給中，這部分價值往往非常顯著。

流程（Process）
服務通過一定的程序、機制以及活動得以實現的過程（亦即消費者管理流程），是市場
營銷戰略的一個關鍵要素。

物質載體（Physical Evidence）
包括服務供給得以順利傳送的服務環境，有形商品承載和表達服務的能力，當前消費者
的無形消費體驗，以及向潛在顧客傳遞消費滿足感的能力。
作為從消費者視角出發的 4Cs
包括：

顧客（Customer）：不是將製造的產品售出，而是要將消費者的需求滿足；

成本（Cost）：不要依競爭者或者自我的盈利策略定價，而是要通過一系列測試
手段了解消費者為滿足需求願付出的成本；

溝通（Communication）不是想著如何通過媒體傳播來提升銷量，而要和消費者
互動溝通。

便利（convenience)。不要以自身為出發點，想著網點怎麼布置，採用什麼樣的
通路策略，而要關注消費者購買產品的便利性；
加上機會(Chance)，市場變化(Change)為 6C。
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7P
7P 是 4P 的延續營銷組合，即產品 (Product)、價格 (Price)、區域 (Placement)、促銷
(Promotion)、人員 (People)、流程 (Process)、環境 (Physical evidence)。
Advertising theory

Hierarchy of effects model[9]
It clarifies the objectives of an advertising campaign and for each individual advertisement.
The model suggests that there are six steps a consumer or a business buyer moves through
when making a purchase. The steps are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Awareness
Knowledge
Liking
Preference
5. Conviction
6. The actual purchase

Means-End Theory
This approach suggests that an advertisement should contain a message or means that leads
the consumer to a desired end state.

Leverage Points
It is designed to move the consumer from understanding a product's benefits to linking
those benefits with personal values.

Verbal and Visual Images
Types of advertising
22
Paying people to hold signs is one of the oldest forms of advertising, as with this Human
billboard pictured above
A bus with an advertisement for GAP in Singapore. Buses and other vehicles are popular
mediums for advertisers.
A DBAG Class 101 with UNICEF ads at Ingolstadt main railway station
Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can
include wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack
cards, radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens,
shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards, magazines,
newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes
("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins,
taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens, musical stage shows, subway platforms
and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers,doors of bathroom stalls,stickers on apples
in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening section of streaming
audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any
23
place an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is
advertising.
Digital advertising
Television advertising / Music in advertising
The TV commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-market
advertising format, as is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for
commercial airtime during popular TV events. The annual Super Bowl football
game in the United States is known as the most prominent advertising event on
television. The average cost of a single thirty-second TV spot during this game has
reached US$3 million (as of 2009). The majority of television commercials feature
a song or jingle that listeners soon relate to the product. Virtual advertisements
may be inserted into regular television programming through computer graphics. It
is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops[10] or used to replace local
billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast audience.[11] More
controversially, virtual billboards may be inserted into the background[12] where
none exist in real-life. This technique is especially used in televised sporting
events[13] [14] Virtual product placement is also possible.;[15][16] Infomercials: An
infomercial is a long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer.
The word "infomercial" combining the words "information" & "commercial". The
main objective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so that the
consumer sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through the
advertised toll-free telephone number or website. Infomercials describe, display,
and often demonstrate products and their features, and commonly have testimonials
from consumers and industry professionals.
Radio advertising
Radio advertising is a form of advertising via the medium of radio. Radio
advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an
antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or
network in exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the obvious
limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite
this as an advantage.
Online advertising
Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide
Web for the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract
customers. Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that appear on
search engine results pages, banner ads, in text ads, Rich Media Ads, Social
24
network advertising, online classified advertising, advertising networks and e-mail
marketing, including e-mail spam.
Product placements
Covert advertising, also known as guerrilla advertising, is when a product or brand
is embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main
character can use an item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority
Report, where Tom Cruise's character John Anderton owns a phone with the Nokia
logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the Bulgari logo.
Another example of advertising in film is in I, Robot, where main character played
by Will Smith mentions his Converse shoes several times, calling them "classics,"
because the film is set far in the future. I, Robot and Spaceballs also showcase
futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz logos clearly displayed on the
front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix Reloaded,
which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used.
Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches, Ford, VAIO, BMW and Aston
Martin cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino Royale.
In "Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer", the main transport vehicle shows a
large Dodge logo on the front. Blade Runner includes some of the most obvious
product placement; the whole film stops to show a Coca-Cola billboard.
Physical advertising
Press advertising
Press advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper,
magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very
broad readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more
narrowly targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very
specialized topics. A form of press advertising is classified advertising, which
allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad
for a low fee advertising a product or service. Another form of press advertising is
the Display Ad, which is a larger ad (can include art) that typically run in an article
section of a newspaper.
Billboard advertising: Billboards are large structures located in public places which
display advertisements to passing pedestrians and motorists. Most often, they are
located on main roads with a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian traffic;
however, they can be placed in any location with large amounts of viewers, such as
on mass transit vehicles and in stations, in shopping malls or office buildings, and
in stadiums.
25
The RedEye newspaper advertised to its target market at North Avenue Beach with a
sailboat billboard on Lake Michigan.
Mobile billboard advertising
Mobile billboards are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital screens.
These can be on dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along
routes preselected by clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or,
in some cases, large banners strewn from planes. The billboards are often lighted;
some being backlit, and others employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are
static, while others change; for example, continuously or periodically rotating
among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used for various situations in
metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: Target advertising, One-day,
and long-term campaigns, Conventions, Sporting events, Store openings and
similar promotional events, and Big advertisements from smaller companies.
In-store advertising
In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes
placement of a product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the
ends of aisles and near checkout counters, eye-catching displays promoting a
specific product, and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-store
video displays.
Coffee cup advertising
Coffee cup advertising is any advertisement placed upon a coffee cup that is
distributed out of an office, café, or drive-through coffee shop. This form of
advertising was first popularized in Australia, and has begun growing in popularity
in the United States, India, and parts of the Middle East.[citation needed]
26
Street advertising
This type of advertising first came to prominence in the UK by Street Advertising
Services to create outdoor advertising on street furniture and pavements. Working
with products such as Reverse Graffiti and 3d pavement advertising, the media
became an affordable and effective tool for getting brand messages out into public
spaces.
Celebrity branding
This type of advertising focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money,
popularity to gain recognition for their products and promote specific stores or
products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities
share their favorite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers.
Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print
adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to endorse a
brand can have its downsides, however. One mistake by a celebrity can be
detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For example, following his
performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China,
swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's did
not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana.
Sales promotions
Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed
because they are used to gather information about what type of customers you draw in and
where they are, and to jumpstart sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and
games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts.
The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action. [17]
Media and advertising approaches
Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the "traditional" media such as television,
radio and newspaper because of a shift toward consumer's usage of the Internet for news
and music as well as devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo.
Advertising on the World Wide Web is a recent phenomenon. Prices of Web-based
advertising space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the
traffic that the website receives.
27
Digital signage is poised to become a major mass media because of its ability to reach
larger audiences for less money. Digital signage also offer the unique ability to see the
target audience where they are reached by the medium. Technological advances have also
made it possible to control the message on digital signage with much precision, enabling
the messages to be relevant to the target audience at any given time and location which in
turn, gets more response from the advertising. Digital signage is being successfully
employed in supermarkets.[18] Another successful use of digital signage is in hospitality
locations such as restaurants.[19] and malls.[20]
E-mail advertising is another recent phenomenon. Unsolicited bulk E-mail advertising is
known as "e-mail spam". Spam has been a problem for email users for many years.
Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster
rockets and the International Space Station. Controversy exists on the effectiveness of
subliminal advertising (see mind control), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (see
propaganda).
Unpaid advertising (also called "publicity advertising"), can provide good exposure at
minimal cost. Personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or
achieving the feat of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, "Xerox"
= "photocopier", "Kleenex" = tissue, "Vaseline" = petroleum jelly, "Hoover" = vacuum
cleaner, "Nintendo" (often used by those exposed to many video games) = video games,
and "Band-Aid" = adhesive bandage) — these can be seen as the pinnacle of any
advertising campaign. However, some companies oppose the use of their brand name to
label an object. Equating a brand with a common noun also risks turning that brand into a
genericized trademark - turning it into a generic term which means that its legal protection
as a trademark is lost.
As the mobile phone became a new mass media in 1998 when the first paid downloadable
content appeared on mobile phones in Finland, it was only a matter of time until mobile
advertising followed, also first launched in Finland in 2000. By 2007 the value of mobile
advertising had reached $2.2 billion and providers such as Admob delivered billions of
mobile ads.
More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service
picture and video messages, advergames and various engagement marketing campaigns. A
particular feature driving mobile ads is the 2D Barcode, which replaces the need to do any
typing of web addresses, and uses the camera feature of modern phones to gain immediate
28
access to web content. 83 percent of Japanese mobile phone users already are active users
of 2D barcodes.
A new form of advertising that is growing rapidly is social network advertising. It is online
advertising with a focus on social networking sites. This is a relatively immature market,
but it has shown a lot of promise as advertisers are able to take advantage of the
demographic information the user has provided to the social networking site. Friendertising
is a more precise advertising term in which people are able to direct advertisements toward
others directly using social network service.
From time to time, The CW Television Network airs short programming breaks called
"Content Wraps," to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break.
The CW pioneered "content wraps" and some products featured were Herbal Essences,
Crest, Guitar Hero II, CoverGirl, and recently Toyota.
Recently, there appeared a new promotion concept, "ARvertising", advertising on
Augmented Reality technology.
Current trends
Rise in new media
With the dawn of the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Popup, Flash,
banner, Popunder, advergaming, and email advertisements (the last often being a form of
spam) are now commonplace. Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some
people may like an advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend. In
general, the advertising community has not yet made this easy, although some have used
the Internet to widely distribute their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. In the last
three quarters of 2009 mobile and internet advertising grew by 18.1% and 9.2%
respectively. Older media advertising saw declines: −10.1% (TV), −11.7% (radio), −14.8%
(magazines) and −18.7% (newspapers ).[citation needed]
Niche marketing
Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the
niche market using niche or targeted ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory
of The Long Tail, advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In
the past, the most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market
audience possible. However, usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity
29
of niche content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites,
provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller but much better defined, leading to ads
that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products.
Among others, Comcast Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their
video on demand menus. These advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be
viewed by anyone wishing to find out more about a particular business or practice at any
time, right from their home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and actually
choose what advertisements they want to view.[21]
Crowdsourcing
Main article: Crowdsourcing
The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user-generated advertisements.
User-generated ads are created by consumers as opposed to an advertising agency or the
company themselves, most often they are a result of brand sponsored advertising
competitions. For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of PepsiCo held the Crash
the Super Bowl contest, allowing consumers to create their own Doritos commercial.[22]
Chevrolet held a similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs.[22] Due to the success of
the Doritos user-generated ads in the 2007 Super Bowl, Frito-Lays relaunched the
competition for the 2009 and 2010 Super Bowl. The resulting ads were among the
most-watched and most-liked Super Bowl ads. In fact, the winning ad that aired in the
2009 Super Bowl was ranked by the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter as the top ad for
the year while the winning ads that aired in the 2010 Super Bowl were found by Nielsen's
BuzzMetrics to be the "most buzzed-about".[23][24]
This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising
competitions on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad
competitions for brands such as Google, Nike, Hershey’s, General Mills, Microsoft, NBC
Universal, Zinio, and Mini Cooper. Crowdsourced advertisements have gained popularity
in part to its cost effective nature, high consumer engagement, and ability to generate
word-of-mouth. However, it remains controversial, as the long-term impact on the
advertising industry is still unclear.[25]
Global advertising
Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export,
international, multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially
competing, business objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide
advertising: building a brand while speaking with one voice, developing economies of
30
scale in the creative process, maximising local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the
company’s speed of implementation. Born from the evolutionary stages of global
marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the
development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing local
executions, and importing ideas that travel.[26]
Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region.
The ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad that contributes to its
success is how economies of scale are maximised. Once one knows what works in an ad,
that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as
Flow of Attention, Flow of Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is
working in an ad in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual,
not verbal, elements of the ad.[27]
Foreign public messaging
Foreign governments, particularly those that own marketable commercial products or
services, often promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods
because the target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as vehicle for foreign
messaging but also willing to receive the message while in a mental state of absorbing
information from advertisements during television commercial breaks, while reading a
periodical, or while passing by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this
messaging technique is advertising campaigns to promote international travel. While
advertising foreign destinations and services may stem from the typical goal of increasing
revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel campaigns carry the additional or
alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or improving existing ones
among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is common for advertising
promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the tourism ministries of
those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or depictions of the
foreign government's desired international public perception. Additionally, a wide range of
foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the destinations,
themselves, are owned by their respective governments; examples include, though are not
limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways
(Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China), and Air China (People's Republic of
China). By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and
pleasant light, countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could
mitigate prior public impressions. See: Soft Power

See also: International Travel Advertising
31
Diversification
In the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers
note that “big global clients don't need big global agencies any more”.[28] This is
reflected by the growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as
Canadian business TAXI and SMART in Australia and has been referred to as "a
revolution in the ad world".[29]
New technology
The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow users to record
the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials.
Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television
programs; fewer people watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold,
means the company will receive additional profits from the sales of these sets. To counter
this effect, many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor.
Advertising education
Advertising education has become widely popular with bachelor, master and doctorate
degrees becoming available in the emphasis. A surge in advertising interest is typically
attributed to the strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes,
such as the advance of online social networking. A unique model for teaching advertising
is the student-run advertising agency, where advertising students create campaigns for real
companies.[30] Organizations such as American Advertising Federation and AdU Network
partner established companies with students to create these campaigns.
Criticisms
Main article: Criticism of advertising
While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth, it is not without social
costs. Unsolicited Commercial Email and other forms of spam have become so prevalent
as to have become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as being a financial
burden on internet service providers.[31] Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces,
such as schools, which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation.[32] In addition,
advertising frequently uses psychological pressure (for example, appealing to feelings of
inadequacy) on the intended consumer, which may be harmful.
32
Regulation
Main article: Advertising regulation
In the US many communities believe that many forms of outdoor advertising blight the
public realm.[33] As long ago as the 1960s in the US there were attempts to ban billboard
advertising in the open countryside.[34] Cities such as São Paulo have introduced an outright
ban[35] with London also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays.
There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content
and the influence of advertising. Some examples are: the ban on television tobacco
advertising imposed in many countries, and the total ban of advertising to children under
12 imposed by the Swedish government in 1991. Though that regulation continues in effect
for broadcasts originating within the country, it has been weakened by the European Court
of Justice, which had found that Sweden was obliged to accept foreign programming,
including those from neighboring countries or via satellite. Greece’s regulations are of a
similar nature, “banning advertisements for children's toys between 7 am and 10 pm and
a total ban on advertisement for war toys".[36]
In Europe and elsewhere, there is a vigorous debate on whether (or how much) advertising
to children should be regulated. This debate was exacerbated by a report released by the
Kaiser Family Foundation in February 2004 which suggested fast food advertising that
targets children was an important factor in the epidemic of childhood obesity in the United
States.
In New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and many European countries, the advertising
industry operates a system of self-regulation. Advertisers, advertising agencies and the
media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general
aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'.
Some self-regulatory organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent,
with the intent of upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards
Authority in the UK.
In the UK most forms of outdoor advertising such as the display of billboards is regulated
by the UK Town and County Planning system. Currently the display of an advertisement
without consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of £2,500
per offence. All of the major outdoor billboard companies in the UK have convictions of
this nature.
33
Naturally, many advertisers view governmental regulation or even self-regulation as
intrusion of their freedom of speech or a necessary evil. Therefore, they employ a
wide-variety of linguistic devices to bypass regulatory laws (e.g. printing English words in
bold and French translations in fine print to deal with the Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon
Law limiting the use of English in French advertising).[37] The advertisement of
controversial products such as cigarettes and condoms are subject to government regulation
in many countries. For instance, the tobacco industry is required by law in most countries
to display warnings cautioning consumers about the health hazards of their products.
Linguistic variation is often used by advertisers as a creative device to reduce the impact of
such requirements.
Advertising research
Main article: Advertising research
Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the
effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which
employ different methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as
copy testing) and post-testing of ads and/or campaigns—pre-testing is done before an ad
airs to gauge how well it will perform and post-testing is done after an ad airs to determine
the in-market impact of the ad or campaign on the consumer. Continuous ad tracking and
the Communicus System are competing examples of post-testing advertising research
types.
See also
Business and economics portal
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Advertising Adstock
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Informative advertising
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Scad (scam ad)
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Advertising to children
American Advertising
Federation Hall of
Fame
Branded content
Classified advertising
Communication design
Conquesting
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Integrated Marketing
Communications
Local advertising
Market overhang
Meta-advertising
Mobile Marketing
Performance-based
advertising
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Senior media
creative
SEO
Copywriting
Sex in
advertising
Gender
stereotypes in
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34
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Coolhunting
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Pseudo-event
Television
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Copy testing
Copywriting
Crowd manipulation
Graphic design
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Psychological
manipulation
Public relations
Reality marketing
Commercials
Shock
advertising
Tobacco
advertising
Video
commerce
Video news
release
Viral marketing
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Virtual
advertising
Visual
communication
Web analytics
World
Federation of
Advertisers
References
1. ^ "TNS Media Intelligence". Tns-mi.com. 2007-01-08.
http://www.tns-mi.com/news/01082007.htm. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
2. ^ Bhatia (2000). Advertising in Rural India: Language, Marketing Communication, and
Consumerism, 62+68
3. ^
a b
Eskilson, Stephen J. (2007). Graphic Design: A New History. New Haven,
Connecticut: Yale University Press. p.58. ISBN978-0-300-12011-0.
4. ^ Advertising Slogans, Woodbury Soap Company, "The skin you love to touch", J. Walter
Thompson Co., 1911
5. ^ a b McChesney, Robert, Educators and the Battle for Control of U.S. Broadcasting,
1928-35, Rich Media, Poor Democracy, ISBN 0-252-02448-6 (1999)
6. ^ "Public Interest, Convenience and Necessity". Museum.tv.
http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/P/htmlP/publicintere/publicintere.htm. Retrieved
2009-04-20.
7. ^ "Annual U.S. Advertising Expenditure Since 1919". Galbithink.org. 2008-09-14.
http://www.galbithink.org/ad-spending.htm. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
35
8. ^ Geana, Mugur Valentin. "Marketing." Encyclopedia of Journalism. 2009. SAGE
Publications. 28 April 2010. Sage-ereference.com
9. ^ Clow, Kenneth E.; Baack, Donald (2007). Integrated Advertising, Promotion, and
Marketing Communications 3rd edition. Pearson Education. pp. 165-171. ISBN
0131866222.
10. ^ McCarthy, Michael (2002-10-17). "Digitally inserted ads pop up more in sports".
usatoday.Com. http://www.usatoday.com/money/advertising/2002-10-17-fake-ads_x.htm.
Retrieved 2009-04-20.
11. ^ Keith Mcarthur. "Business". globeandmail.com.
http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20060315.RVIRTUAL15/TPStory/Bu
siness. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
12. ^ "Canwestmediaworks.com". Canwestmediaworks.com.
http://www.canwestmediaworks.com/television/nontraditional/opportunities/virtual_adverti
sing/. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
13. ^ - Planman Stars and Brandmagic.tv bring Virtual Advertising to Cricket
14. ^ ADVision - Full motion virtual advertising - Orad.tv
15. ^ Advertising's Twilight Zone: That Signpost Up Ahead May Be a Virtual Product - New
York Times
16. ^ "Welcome to E-Commerce Times". Ecommercetimes.com.
http://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/48956.html. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
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Outside/In. CA: Sage Publication Inc. 2006. Print.
18. ^ "Aimdigitalvisions.com". Aimdigitalvisions.com.
http://www.aimdigitalvisions.com/content/weis-markets. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
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20. ^ "Aimdigitalvisions.com". Aimdigitalvisions.com.
http://www.aimdigitalvisions.com/content/strawberry-square. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
21. ^ "Interactive - VOD" "Comcast Spotlight website". Retrieved October 5, 2006.
22. ^ a b "Who's Buying What at Super Bowl 2007". Advertising Age.
http://adage.com/SuperBowlBuyers/. Retrieved May 10, 2010.
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http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/09/business/media/09adco.html. Retrieved May 10,
2010.
24. ^ Horovitz, Bruce (December 31, 2009). "'Two nobodies from nowhere' craft winning
Super Bowl ad". USA Today.
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2010.
36
25. ^ Moskowitz, Robert (May 10, 2006). "Are Consumer-Generated Ads Here to Stay?".
iMediaConnection. http://www.imediaconnection.com/content/9521.asp. Retrieved May 10,
2010.
26. ^ Global marketing Management, 2004, pp.13-18
27. ^ Young, p.131
28. ^ Howard, Theresa (2005-10-10). "USA Today, October 9, 2005". Usatoday.com.
http://www.usatoday.com/money/companies/management/2005-10-09-goodson-profile_x.h
tm. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
29. ^ Leonard, Devin (2005-12-12). "Madison Ave. Lights Up" (in en). Fortune.
http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2005/12/12/8363132/index.htm.
30. ^ Avery, James (1992-08-00). "Student-Run Advertising Agency: A Showcase for Student
Work." (in en).
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfp
b=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED351711&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=
no&accno=ED351711.
31. ^ "Slashdot | ISP Operator Barry Shein Answers Spam Questions". Interviews.slashdot.org.
2003-03-03. http://interviews.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=03/03/03/1528247&tid=111.
Retrieved 20x09-04-20.
32. ^ "How Marketers Target Kids". Media-awareness.ca. 2009-02-13.
http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/parents/marketing/marketers_target_kids.cfm.
Retrieved 2009-04-20.
33. ^ "Welcome to SCRUB". Urbanblight.org. http://www.urbanblight.org/. Retrieved
2009-04-20.
34. ^ "How the Highway Beautification Act Became a Law". Fhwa.dot.gov.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/beauty.htm. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
35. ^ "Billboard ban in São Paulo angers advertisers - Americas - International Herald
Tribune". International Herald Tribune. 2009-03-29.
http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/12/12/news/brazil.php. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
36. ^ "PPU.org.uk". PPU.org.uk. http://www.ppu.org.uk/chidren/advertising_toys_eu.html.
Retrieved 2010-08-23.
37. ^ Bhatia and Ritchie 2006:542
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Advertising
Look up advertising in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
41
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of
Marketing
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Advertising

Advertising Educational Foundation, archived advertising exhibits and classroom

resources
Duke University Libraries Digital Collections:




Ad*Access, over 7,000 U.S. and Canadian advertisements, dated
1911-1955, includes World War II propaganda.
Emergence of Advertising in America, 9,000 advertising items and
publications dating from 1850 to 1920, illustrating the rise of consumer
culture and the birth of a professionalized advertising industry in the
United States.
AdViews, vintage television commercials
On-Line exhibits at William F. Eisner Museum of Advertising & Design
（1）A brand is the identity of a specific product, service, or business. A brand can take
many forms, including a name, sign, symbol, color combination or slogan. The word brand
began simply as a way to tell one person's cattle from another by means of a hot iron stamp.
A legally protected brand name is called a trademark. The word brand has continued to
evolve to encompass identity - it affects the personality of a product, company or service.
A concept brand is a brand that is associated with an abstract concept, like breast cancer
awareness or environmentalism, rather than a specific product, service, or business. A
commodity brand is a brand associated with a commodity. Got milk? is an example of a
commodity brand.
In the automotive industry, brands were originally called marques, and marque is still often
used as a synonym for brand in reference to motor vehicles.
品牌包括名稱、徽標、口號和／或關聯產品、服務、城市或公眾人物的設計企劃。
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品牌與商標
「品牌」不是「商標」。「品牌」指的是產品或服務的象徵。而符號性的識別標記，指
的是「商標」。品牌所涵蓋的領域，則必須包括商譽、產品、企業文化以及整體營運的
管理。因此，brand 不是單薄的象徵，乃是一個企業總體競爭，或企業競爭力的總和。
品牌不單包括「名稱」、「徽標」還擴及系列的平面視覺體系，甚至立體視覺體系。但
一般常將其窄化為在人的意識中圍繞在產品或服務的系列意識與預期，成為一種抽象的
形象標誌。甚至將品牌與特定商標劃上等號。
人們從品牌的經驗因素上辨別一個品牌的心理因素。經驗因素通常由品牌的使用經驗構
成，心理因素則由品牌的形象，即由與產品或服務相關聯的一切信息和預期所創建的符
號性的標識。
品牌的意義： Philip Kotler 行銷管理大師說：品牌的意義在於企業的驕傲與優勢，當公
司成立後，品牌力就因為服務或品質，形成無形的商業定位。
品牌首先是獨佔性的商業符號，也就是商標 然後，這一符號需要被人所認知，也就是
具有意義。
歷史
市場上品牌的概念起源於 19 世紀包裝零售商品的出現，工業化將很多家庭產品，以肥
皂為例，轉移到當地的工廠生產。工廠大批量生產，同時需要將產品向更廣闊的市場，
向那些只熟悉其本地產品的消費者銷售。但工廠很快發現，一些普通包裝的外來產品無
法和本地產品競爭，於是他們試圖使市場相信自己的產品可以與本地產品同樣被信任。
品牌權益
Kevin Lane Keller 認為品牌權益來自品牌行銷效果，該效果則視消費者具有的品牌知識
而定。品牌知識的來源是由品牌知名度及品牌形象所形成的聯想網路記憶模式為主，運
用品牌聯想網度可以提升品牌知名度及品牌形象。
Classified advertising（分類廣告，是一種常見於報紙及期刊的廣告
模式。分類廣告由多個小型廣告組成，並分門別類刊出，而這些小型廣告多數是
由個人及小型公司刊登） is a form of advertising which is particularly common in
43
newspapers, online and other periodicals which may be sold or distributed free of charge.
Advertisements in a newspaper are typically short, as they are charged for by the line, and
one newspaper column wide.
Publications printing news or other information often have sections of classified
advertisements; there are also publications which contain only advertisements. The
advertisements are grouped into categories or classes such as "for sale - telephones",
"wanted - kitchen appliances", and "services - plumbing", hence the term "classified".
Classified advertisements are much cheaper than larger display advertisements used by
businesses, and are mostly placed by private individuals with single items they wish to sell
or buy.
Contents
[hide]

1 Overview

2 Developments
3 Statistics
4 See also
5 References



Overview
Classified advertisements are usually charged for according to length; the publications in
which they appear may be sold or given away free of charge. Advertisements usually
comprise text with no graphics, and may be as short as a statement of the article on sale or
wanted and a telephone number, or may have more information such as name and address,
detailed description of the item or items ("red woman's sweater, V neck, size 10, slightly
used, good condition"). There are usually no pictures or other graphics, although
sometimes a logo may be used.
Classified advertising is called such because it is generally grouped within the publication
under headings classifying the product or service being offered (headings such as
Accounting, Automobiles, Clothing, Farm Produce, For Sale, For Rent, etc.) and is
grouped entirely in a distinct section of the periodical, which makes it distinct from display
44
advertising, which often contains graphics or other art work and which is more typically
distributed throughout a publication adjacent to editorial content.
A hybrid of the two forms — classified display advertising — may often be found, in
which categorized advertisements with larger amounts of graphical detail can be found
among the text listings of a classified advertising section in a publication. Business
opportunities often use classifieds to sell their services, usually employing 1-800 numbers.
Classified and classified display ads are used by many companies to recruit applicants for
jobs.
Printed classified ads are typically just a few column lines in length, and they are often
filled with abbreviations to save space and money.
Developments
In recent years the term "classified advertising" or "classified ads" has expanded from
merely the sense of print advertisements in periodicals to include similar types of
advertising on computer services, radio, and even television, particularly cable television
but occasionally broadcast television as well, with the latter occurring typically very early
in the morning hours[citation needed].
Like most forms of printed media, the classified ad has found its way to the Internet.
Internet classified ads do not typically use per-line pricing models, so tend to be longer.
They are also searchable, unlike printed material, tend to be local, and may foster a greater
sense of urgency as a result of their daily structure and wider scope for audiences. Because
of their self-policing nature and low cost structures, some companies offer free classifieds
internationally. Other companies focus mainly on their local hometown region, while
others blanket urban areas by using postal codes. Craigslist.org was one of the first online
classified sites, and has grown to become the largest classified source, bringing in over 14
million unique visitors a month according to comScore Media Metrix[citation needed]. A number
of online services called aggregators crawl and aggregate classifieds from sources such as
blogs and RSS feeds, as opposed to relying on manually submitted listings.
Additionally, other companies provide online advertising services and tools to assist
members in designing online ads using professional ad templates and then automatically
distributing the finished ads to the various online ad directories as part of their service. In
this sense these companies act as both an application service provider and a content
delivery platform. Social classifieds is niche that is growing in online classified ads.
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Statistics
In 2003 the market for classified ads in the United States was $15.9 billion (newspapers),
$14.1 billion (online) according to market researcher Classified Intelligence. The
worldwide market for classified ads in 2003 was estimated at over $100 billion. Perhaps
due to the lack of a standard for reporting, market statistics vary concerning the total
market for internet classified ads. The Kelsey Research Group listed online classified ads
as being worth $13.3 billion[citation needed], while Jupiter Research provided a conservative
appraisal of $2.6 billion as of 2005[citation needed] and the Interactive Advertising Bureau listed
the net worth of online classified revenue at $2.1 billion as of April 2006[citation needed].
Newspaper's revenue from classifieds advertisements is decreasing continually as internet
classifieds grow. Classified advertising at some of the larger newspaper chains dropped by
14% to 20% in 2007, while traffic to classified sites grew by 23%.[1]
As the online classified advertising sector develops, there is an increasing emphasis toward
specialization. Vertical markets for classifieds are developing quickly along with the
general marketplace for classifieds websites. Like search engines, classified websites are
often specialised, with sites providing advertising platforms for niche markets of buyers of
sellers.
See also
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Personal advertisement
Tradio
Newspaper display advertising
Internet marketing tools
References
1. ^ On the Internet, A Tangled Web Of Classified Ads - washingtonpost.com
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classified_advertising"
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