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Chapter 13 Explain why organisms only reproduce their own kind, and why offspring more closely resemble their parents than unrelated individuals of the same species. Distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction . Diagram the human life cycle and indicate where in the human body that mitosis and meiosis occur; which cells are the result of meiosis and mitosis; and which cells are haploid. Distinguish among the life cycle patterns of animals, fungi, and plants. List the phases of meiosis I and meiosis II and describe the events characteristic of each phase. Recognize the phases of meiosis from diagrams or micrographs. Describe the process of synapsis during prophase I, and explain how genetic recombination occurs. . Describe key differences between mitosis and meiosis; explain how the end result of meiosis differs from that of mitosis. Explain how independent assortment, crossing over, and random fertilization contribute to genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms. Chapter 14 Use a Punnett square to predict the results of a monohybrid cross and state the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation. Phenotypic Ratio. 3:1; Genotypic Ratio: 1:2:1 Distinguish between genotype and phenotype; heterozygous and homozygous; dominant and recessive. Genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism, and phenotype is just the appearance of it. Organisms having two different alleles for character are heterozygous while an organism having a pair of identical alleles for a character homozygous. A dominant allele in a heterozygote, is the allele that is fully expressed in the phenotype, and the recessive allele is completely masked in the phenotype. Explain how a testcross can be used to determine if a dominant phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous. A testcross is designed to reveal the genotype of an organism that exhibits a dominant trait, such as purple flowers in pea plants. Such an organism could be either homozygous for the dominant allele or heterozygous. The most efficient way to resolve the genotype is to cross the organism with an individual; expressing the recessive trait. Since the genotype of the white flowered parent must be homozygous, we can deduce the genotype of the purple- flowered parent by observing the phenotypes of the offspring. Define random event, and explain why it is significant that allele segregation during meiosis and fusion of gametes at fertilization are random events. It is important that these are random events because then if it were not like that then all the organisms would look the same State, in your own words, Mendel's law of independent assortment. Law of independent assortment is the independent segregation of each pair of alleles during gamete formation. Use a Punnett square to predict the results of a dihybrid cross and state the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation. Phenotypic Ratio: 9:3:3:1; Genotypic Ratio: 1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1 Give an example of incomplete dominance and explain why it is not evidence for the blending theory of inheritance. Incomplete dominance is when the F1 hybrids have an appearance somewhere in between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties. For instance, when red snapdragons are crossed with whit , all the F1 hybrids have pink flowers. We should not regard incomplete dominance as evidence of the blending theory, which would predict that the red or white traits could never be retrieved from the pink hybrids. The segregation of the red and white alleles in the gametes produced by the color are heritable factors that maintain their identity in the hybrids; that is, inheritance is particulate. Explain how the phenotypic expression of the heterozygote is affected by complete dominance, incomplete dominance and codominance. In complete dominance, the phenotypes of the heterozygote are indistinguishable.. This represents one extrame of a spectrum in the dominance/recessiveness relationship of alleles. At the other extreme is codominance, in which both alleles are separately manifest in the phenotype, and in incomplete dominace the F1 hybrids have an appearance somewhere in between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties. Describe the inheritance of the ABO blood system and explain why the IA and IB alleles are said to be codominant. The ABO blood groups in humans are one example of multiple alleles of a single gene.Four blood groups result from various combinations of three different alleles of one gene, symbolized as IA (for the carbohydrate), IB (for B), and I (giving rise to neither A nor B). Both the IA and the IB alleles are dominant to the I allele. Thus, IAIAand IAi individuals have A blood, and IBIB and IBi individuals have type B. Recessive homozygotes, ii, have type O blood, because neither the A nor the B substance is produced. The IA and IB alleles are codominant; both are expressed in the phenotype of the IAIB heterozygote, who has type AB blood. Define and give examples of pleiotropy. Pleiotropy is the ablitity of a single gene to have multiple effects. For example, alleles that are responsible for certain hereditary diseases in humans, including sickle-cell disease, usually cause multiple symptoms. Explain, in their own words, what is meant by "one gene is epistatic to another." One gene affects the other by means that they are all connected to each other in some which way or form. Describe how environmental conditions can influence the phenotypic expression of a character. The Phenotype is the actual expression of a gene. The enviroment may cause a mutation causing there to be change in the physical appearance that isn’t considered “normal” Given a simple family pedigree, deduce the genotypes for some of the family members. http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/campbell_a wl/chapter14/medialib/1414.jpg Chapter 15 Define linkage and explain why linkage interferes with independent assortment. Linkage are genes that reside on the same chromosomes and thus cannot segregate independently because that are physically connected. It interere with independent assorment because homologous chromosomes, and the genes they carry, segregate independtly of the segregation of other chromosome pairs. Explain how crossing over can unlink genes. Because individual chromosomes that combine genes inherited from the parents. Describe sex determination in humans. The determining factor for sex determination is of the last set of chromosomes in the Karytype; XX=GIRL, XY=BOY; Males determine the sex because they carry both the X and Y-chromosomes . Describe the inheritance of a sex-linked gene such as color-blindness. Sex linkage refers to a single gene residing specifically on a sex chromosomes. A color-Blindness daughter may be born to a color-blind father whose mate is a carrier. However, because the sex-linked allele for color blindness rare, the probability that such a man and woman will come together is very low. Explain why a recessive sex-linked gene is always expressed in human males. Because the X-Chromosomes is dominant because the Y-chromosomes is too “little” compared to the X Chromosomes Distinguish among nondisjunction, aneuploidy, and polyploidy; explain how these major chromosomal changes occur and describe the consequences. Nondisjuction- The Chromosomes do not properly separate. Aneuploidy- A chromosomes aberration in which certain chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number. Polyploidy- A chromosomes alteration in which the organism possesses more than two complete chromosomes sets. Distinguish among deletions, duplications, translocations, and inversions. Deletions- A deficiently in a chromosomes resulting from the loss of a fragment through breakage. Duplication- An aberration in chromosomes structure resulting from an error in meiosis or mutagens. Translocations- An aberration in chromosomes structure resulting from as error in meiosis or from mutagens Inversion- An abbrration in chromosomes structure resulting from as error in meiosis or from mutagens