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Directorate-General for Research
Directorate A: Medium and long-term research
Division for Industry, Research, Energy, Environment and STOA
BRIEFING
ENVI 510 EN
GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY:
THE ROLE OF CARBON SINKS
The opinions expressed are the sole responsibility of the author
and do not necessarily reflect the position of the European Parliament.
Luxembourg, 14 August 2002
PE 322.353
This document is only available in English.
You will find the full list of ‘Environment’ briefings at the end of this publication.
Summary
The Marrakesh Accords turned provisions to tackle climate change of the Kyoto Protocol into a
legally binding text. The resulting document was substantially weaker than the original protocol
but it still represents an important first step in the global strategy to tackle climate change and it
should be welcomed as a positive example of multilateral governance.
The most controversial issues discussed in Marrakesh were monitoring, compliance, and the
modalities of use of the Kyoto mechanisms and carbon sinks.
The issue of carbon sinks was particularly important. Their inclusion in the protocol can help the
parties meet their commitments in a cost-effective way but could also grant free credits thus
undermining the credibility of the protocol. However, there are forestry management options
that can enhance the carbon sequestration of terrestrial sinks. Although the storage is not
permanent, the sequestration in biomass can buy time to develop alternative solutions.
Publisher:
European Parliament
L-2929 Luxembourg
Author:
Valentina Bastino (ex-former Ramón y Cajal scholar)
Responsible
official:
Peter Palinkas
Division for Industry, Research, Energy, Environment and STOA
Tel. (352) 43 00-22920
Fax (352) 43 00-20016
E-mail: [email protected]
Reproduction and translation for non-commercial purposes are authorised, provided the source is
acknowledged and the publisher is given prior notice and sent a copy.
Global Climate change Policy: The Role of Carbon Sinks
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1. THE FLEXIBILITY MECHANISMS ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.2. MARRAKESH ACCORDS ..................................................................................................................................... 6
1.3. OUTCOMES OF THE MARRAKESH TALKS............................................................................................................ 7
2. THE CARBON SINKS ISSUE ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.1. THE CARBON CYCLE AND TERRESTRIAL SINKS .................................................................................................. 8
2.2. THE SINK CONTROVERSY ................................................................................................................................. 10
2.3. CRITICAL ISSUES CONCERNING LULUCF ACTIVITIES ..................................................................................... 10
2.4. OPINIONS AND DIFFERENT PARTIES’ POSITION ................................................................................................. 12
3. MITIGATING CLIMATE CHANGE THROUGH FOREST MANAGEMENT ................................................ 15
3.1. FORESTRY OPTIONS TO MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE ....................................................................................... 15
3.2. DIFFICULTIES IN ESTIMATING THE POTENTIAL OF FORESTRY OPTIONS: FACTORS IN FOREST ECOSYSTEMS ...... 16
3.3. COMMENTS ON SOME FORESTRY OPTIONS ....................................................................................................... 17
4. RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................................................................ 19
5. CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 21
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................................... 23
FULL LIST OF ‘ENVIRONMENT’ BRIEFINGS ............................................................................................ 25
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Global Climate change Policy: The Role of Carbon Sinks
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Global Climate change Policy: The Role of Carbon Sinks
1. Introduction
Weather and climate have a profound influence on life on earth, being essential for health, food
production and well-being (IPCC, 2001a). Scientific evidence exists which indicates that
human-induced changes are being made to the climate, mainly through the emission of
greenhouse gases. In particular, the carbon emissions of the present energy system,
approximately 85 % of which rely on fossil fuels, play a main role in the climate change issue
(Spitzer, 1998). Indeed, since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution the concentration of
CO2 in the atmosphere has greatly increased by approximately 30 %, from 280 to 370 PPM.
This was caused by increased fossil-fuel burning for energy production and transportation and
also for a change in energy consumption patterns. Larger areas of arable land for increased
agricultural production also led to a further rise in the atmospheric CO2. Electricity generating
power plants are one of the major CO2 sources, responsible for about one third of all CO2
released in the atmosphere. Another major CO2 source is the extensive and growing use of fossil
fuels by the transportation industry. According to general circulation models, the warming trend,
in a doubling CO2 emissions scenario, has been estimated to be around 3 ± 1.5 °C, with regional
temperature increases at mid- to high-latitudes, possibly exceeding 10 °C. The pace of climate
change, however, seems to have accelerated — the warming trend until the end of the 21st
century is predicted to be in the range 1.4 to 5.8 °C (Papadopol, 2002).
In 1998, The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The
aim was, and remains, to provide an assessment of the understanding of all aspects of climate
change, including how human activities can cause such changes and can be impacted by them.
The IPCC recognised that anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases have the potential to
alter the climate system and it was also recognised that addressing such global issues required
organisation on a global scale, including an assessment of the understanding of the issue by the
worldwide expert communities (IPCCa, 2001).
The Rio Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, brought the global environmental and
social problems to the fore of every nation’s political agenda. A number of documents were
produced, setting the foundation to action in order to tackle global problems. On this occasion
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was produced.
The objective of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and of any
instrument adopted under it, is to stabilise the concentration of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system
(Langrock, 2001). The UNFCCC declares that all the parties shall promote sustainable
management and the conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of
all greenhouse gases, including biomass, forests and oceans as well as other terrestrial, coastal
and marine ecosystems (Lashof and Hare, 1999).
The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997, represents the first legal instrument to put into practice
the agreements reached in Rio de Janeiro. It established a broad framework for international
action against climate change, establishing emission targets and a series of market-based
instruments in order to achieve these targets (Ford, 2002). The emissions targets are to be met
between 2008–12 by the industrialised countries and six greenhouse gases are covered: carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).
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1.1. The flexibility mechanisms
The Kyoto Protocol introduced a series of mechanisms in order to grant some flexibility for the
parties to achieve the agreed reduction targets. These have been the subject of very active debate
in the subsequent conferences of parties as different countries took very different positions on
them.
The three Kyoto mechanisms are the following: emissions trading (possibility of buying and
selling emissions permits), joint implementation (emissions saving projects in other
industrialised countries) and clean development mechanism (industrialised countries can invest
in emissions-saving projects in developing countries). For the first time market-based policy
instruments are put at the heart of environmental policies, hopefully ensuring that the emission
reduction targets are achieved in the most cost-effective manner. (Moreira da Silva, 2002). In
particular, the clean development mechanism could be an important means of encouraging
technology transfer and sustainable development.
An alternative way to provide the parties with flexibility in reaching the agreed reduction
targets, was the inclusion of carbon sinks in the protocol. This issue became very important
since the beginning of the negotiation process.
1.2. Marrakesh Accords
The seventh Conference of the Parties (COP) in Marrakesh, October to November 2001, was set
up to translate the Kyoto Protocol into a legally binding document and resulted in the adoption
of the Marrakesh Accords.
The Kyoto Protocol established the framework for action against climate change but left the
details about policies and compliance rules to be decided at a later stage, in the subsequent
conferences of the parties. The conference in The Hague (COP 6), in 2001, did not yield the
results hoped for, while the subsequent COP 6a in Bonn (2001) saw the parties agreeing on
major issues, such as the operating rules for emissions trading, the role of carbon sinks in
achieving emission targets, funding to help developing countries and mechanisms to enforce
compliance. The technical aspects and the legal details, however, were discussed in Marrakesh,
where the Kyoto Protocol was finalised for full implementation. Now the protocol is ready for
ratification and will take effect once it is ratified by at least 55 countries, accounting for 55 % of
developed countries’ emissions of CO2 in 1990 (Ford, 2002).
The European Union has ratified the Kyoto Protocol in May 2002 by handing up its ratification
papers to the UN headquarters in New York, fulfilling the ambition to have the Kyoto Protocol
enter into force before the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in
August 2002 (Mahony, 2002).
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1.3. Outcomes of the Marrakesh talks
The Marrakesh Accords are defined by Athanasiou and Baer (2001) as a ‘dilution to the Bonn
compromise to the Kyoto Protocol’ and deplore the potential loopholes created in the protocol,
mainly because of the influence of some parties. Indeed, after the withdrawal of the US from the
negotiation, it was necessary to make large concessions to some countries that in fact held veto
power on the negotiations. These countries were part of the so-called ‘gang of four’ — Japan,
Canada, Australia and Russia — which took advantage of their position to obtain concessions in
order to minimise their commitments, maximise the freedom to use flexibility mechanisms
including carbon sinks, and protect themselves from the enforcement actions should they be
unable to meet their targets (Athanasiou and Baer, 2001). However, they did not act as a
compact block, having different interests.
The main and most controversial issues discussed in Marrakesh were monitoring, compliance
and the modalities of use of the Kyoto mechanisms and carbon sinks, including the banking of
credits (Athanasiou et al., 2001). In addition to the issues already present in the Bonn
agreements, the Marrakesh Accords added details to the compliance system in the form of
opportunities for public participation in the compliance procedure (Ford, 2002).
The final agreement established that the parties can receive credit towards their targets for
carbon absorbed in sinks, such as soil and forest management. Country-specific caps have been
put in place. However, the weak caps agreed on in Bonn were further weakened because of
pressures from Russia, which obtained a vast amount of credits. Also the rules governing the
quality of the sinks were weakened: sinks have to be reported annually but the quality of the
reporting will not be penalised, and the parties can still use the flexibility mechanisms. Various
authors underline that this in fact deprives the provision of its strength (Athanasiou et al., 2001
and Ford, 2002).
A way of maintaining the integrity of the protocol would have been to apply a strict regulation
on the banking of credit for the second commitment period but concessions had to be made
because of the requirements of the gang of four (Athanasiou et al., 2001). The credits generated
by sinks are accounted as removal units that can be used to meet a party’s emission target in the
commitment period in which they are generated and cannot be banked. All emission units
created using the Kyoto mechanisms are to be treated equally in order to maximise cost
effectiveness (Ford, 2002).
Emission trading rules were established. To take part in the trading a country must be a party of
the protocol, have its emission allocation and a registry in place. The coalition between Europe
and the G77/China group wanted to add requirements such as the preparation of an annual sink
inventory and a link between trading and compliance. These issues were dropped because it was
impossible to break the resistance of the gang of four (Ford, 2002).
A compliance system was established together with a compliance committee. The idea was to
link the use of flexibility mechanisms to compliance: countries would have to ratify the future
compliance amendment before they would be allowed to participate in the Kyoto flexibility
mechanisms. However, the pressure of the gang of four prevented the establishment of clear
links. It is in fact legally possible for the parties to be out of compliance but being still able to
utilise the flexibility mechanisms (Ford, 2002), leaving room for abuse of the system
(Athanasiou et al., 2001).
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Finally, a special package for least developed countries, likely to be more vulnerable to the
adverse effects of climate change, has been adopted, in order to provide the resources and
techniques to adapt their fragile economies to the effects of climate change (European
Commission, 2001).
2. The carbon sinks issue
2.1. The carbon cycle and terrestrial sinks
The atmosphere of the Earth is composed mainly of nitrogen, oxygen and argon, gases with only
limited interaction with the incoming solar radiation and with the infrared radiation emitted by
the Earth. However, other trace gases are present, which absorb and emit infrared radiation
emitted by the Earth and thus play an essential role in the planet’s energy budget. These gases
act as greenhouse gases and re-emit the infrared radiation they absorb up and downward, thus
raising the temperature of the earth and playing a very important role in its climatic regime
(IPCCa, 2001). One of the main and most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide (CO 2)
and along with the need to control emissions the Kyoto Protocol recognises the need to preserve
and enhance the amount of carbon stored in the terrestrial biosphere (Lashof et al., 1999).
The global carbon cycle consists of carbon flows and stocks. Hundreds of billions of tonnes of
CO2 are absorbed from or emitted to the atmosphere through natural processes in a year. The
flows include plant photosynthesis, respiration and decay, as well as oceanic absorption and
release of carbon dioxide. The stocks include the ocean, the atmosphere and the terrestrial ones,
which are very heterogeneous and difficult to measure. The largest terrestrial carbon stock is
represented by fossil-fuels deposits (World Resources Institute, 2002).
In order to have an idea of the magnitude of the fluxes involved in the global carbon cycle it is
useful to consider the estimated quantities of carbon present in different sinks and the potential
for enhancing these sinks. Table 1 provides the quantities of carbon stored in the different sinks.
Table 1. The quantities of carbon stored in different sinks, measured in Gigatonnes
(Gt)
Sink
Amount of carbon stored in Gigatonnes (Gt)
Atmosphere
750
Oceans’ surface layers
800
Deep oceans
34 000
Fossil-fuel deposits
10 000
Forested ecosystems
1 146
Source: World Resource Institute, 2002 and Sohngen, Mendelsohn and Sedjo, 1998.
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The global carbon cycle is now out of balance: the amount of CO2 present in the atmosphere has
increased by more than 30 % since the Industrial Revolution and it is still increasing at an
unprecedented rate of 0.4 % a year (IPCCa, 2001). Moreover, many biological processes
resulting from agricultural and silvicultural practices can release carbon dioxide e.g. slash and
burn agriculture, clearing of land, development of infrastructures, accidental or intentional forest
burning, unsustainable logging and fuel-wood collection.
Clearing vegetation not only releases much of the carbon in the atmosphere but also some of the
carbon locked in the soil. The effect of deforestation will depend in large part on the amount of
land deforested and the amount of carbon stored at the time of deforestation. On average,
however, it is estimated that the amount of carbon released would be 400 t C/ha above and
below ground in boreal forests, 150 t C/ha in temperate forests and 250 t C/ha in tropical forests
(IPCC, 2000). See Table 2 for the global area of forest. Also logging or harvesting in forests can
degrade the vegetation cover and result in net release of carbon. Other agricultural practices
beside deforestation release greenhouse gases: e.g. methane is released if combustion is
incomplete or when biomass rots. Regular burning of pastures or grassland releases CO2, N2O,
and ozone. N2O can also be released when applying fertilisers (World Resources Institute,
2002).
Table 2. Global area of forests (IPCC, 2000)
Zone
Area (billion hectares)
Boreal zone
1.4
Temperate
zone
1.0
Tropical zone
1.8
Global
4.2
The Kyoto Protocol recognises that forests and land-use changes are a part of the problem and
could be part of the solution. Indeed, some land-use activities can slow down the release of
carbon and increase the terrestrial carbon sinks: enhancing forest protection, reforestation
projects, increasing the carbon stored in agricultural soil, substituting fossil fuel burning with
biomass energy sources, increasing the carbon stored in artificial reservoirs such as timber
products.
Table 3 shows the annual carbon sequestration rates, in above- and below-ground biomass, that
could potentially be achieved through afforestation and reforestation. The maximum amount of
carbon that might be sequestered by global afforestation and reforestation activities for the 55
year period between 1995 and 2050 was estimated at 60–87 Gt of carbon, with about 70 % in
tropical forests, 25 % in temperate forests and 5 % in boreal forests (IPCC, 2000). It is important
to point out that the annual carbon sequestration value is not constant but changes from year to
year depending on various environmental factors, such as weather conditions, and it is likely to
change in the long term (IPCC, 2000).
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Table 3. Potential carbon sequestration, including above- and below-ground
biomass, by afforestation and reforestation activities, measured in tonnes
per hectare per year (IPCC, 2000).
Region
Boreal regions
Temperate regions
Tropical regions
Carbon sequestered
(tonnes/ha/yr)
0.4–1.2
1.5–4.5
4–8
2.2. The sink controversy
Land-use changes resulting from various human activities, such as changes in the agricultural
practices and irrigation, reforestation, deforestation or afforestation, can greatly contribute to
change the physical and biological properties of the land surface and thus influence the climate
system (IPCCa, 2001). Scientific evidence suggests that the terrestrial biosphere can be used to
slow the increase of CO2 in the atmosphere (Schlamadinger and Marland, 2000) but whether the
carbon sinks should be included in the strategy to combat climate change has been the subject of
intense debate since the beginning of the negotiation concerning the Kyoto Protocol. Some
issues have technical solutions but many will require political solutions. Some critical issues that
were brought to the fore are described in the following section.
In Bonn it was agreed that forest management, cropland management, grazing land management
and revegetation are all eligible as LULUCF (land use, land use change and forestry) activities
(Dessai, 2001). During the Marrakesh climate talks these activities were accepted and regulated,
although they are seen by many as a potential loophole that would allow some parties to meet
their emission targets without actually taking any domestic action to cut down on CO2
emissions. As a matter of fact, notwithstanding the position of the EU and the G77/China group,
large concessions had to be made in Marrakesh in order to obtain the Russian consensus
(Athanasiou et al., 2001).
2.3. Critical issues concerning LULUCF activities
The issue on whether to include the LULUCF activities saw great debate in the course of the
negotiation, with some parties welcoming the inclusion of carbon sinks as a cost-effective way
of meeting emission targets and others concerned that this could deprive the protocol of its
force, due to some uncertainties and other problems connected with the carbon sinks.
Some of the issues that characterised the debate about the carbon sinks and the LULUCF
activities in general concerned the definition of the terms utilised in the Kyoto Protocol to define
forests and forest management practices. Indeed, Schlamadinger and Marland (2000) point out
that a broad search of the literature revealed 130 definitions of forest, some based on legal
parameters, others on land-use characteristics or land cover. Different definitions sometimes
also reflect the differences in applications and geographic settings. It can be easily understood
how a disagreement over the definition of a forest can lead the negotiations to a halt.
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The concern that certain changes in carbon stock are not directly human induced brought the
parties to negotiate the inclusion only of ‘direct, human-induced’ activities, in order to avoid a
windfall of free credits when no actual action to improve the sequestration of carbon has been
taken. However, in some cases it is not clear what can be considered as direct human-induced,
and the IPCC, not being able to define it on technical or scientific grounds, remitted the decision
to the policy-makers (Schlamadinger et al., 2000). In order to verify the additionality of a carbon
take-up, a possible method would be to introduce a project-based accounting system able to
compare the project areas with a valid control area. This should make it possible to isolate direct
human intervention from indirect and natural carbon flows (Lashof et al., 1999). Another
problem related to the carbon sink is that they could be a very valid option only if additional to
domestic action to decrease the emissions of greenhouse gases. Otherwise, the parties could
meet their reduction targets without having implemented any kind of measure to cut down on
the emissions from the fossil fuel use. Indeed, substantial use of carbon sinks to meet the Kyoto
commitments might even enable a higher consumption of fossil fuel. This implies a slower rate
of development and introduction of new energy saving technologies and measures. There is also
the risk of increasing costs if action is taken with delay (Lashof et al., 1999).
Another concern regards the verifiability of the stock change. The question is whether
verifiability involves a second-party confirmation or simply verifiable means that the process of
reporting the carbon-stock change should be open to verification by third parties. A possible
way to deal with this problem and also with the uncertainties in the measurement should be to
limit the value of the credit and debits accounting for the uncertainty of the measurement.
However, the Marrakesh Accords are considerably less strict. Annual reporting is required and
the parties need to declare whether or not they separate indirect and natural effects from their
estimates of carbon sequestration in forests, but failure to meet the quality threshold does not
endanger eligibility to participate in the mechanisms. This compromise was needed in order to
accommodate the needs of Russia, unable to meet the sinks reporting requirements (Dessai,
2001).
Probably one of the major worries regards the permanence of the sinks, a problem which some
authors consider insurmountable in the sink controversy (Langrock, 2001). Carbon locked in the
biosphere may not be permanently sequestered and there might also be some unaccounted losses
of carbon should the commitment periods not be successive (Schlamadinger et al., 2000). Also,
trading off biospheric and lithospheric (fossil fuel) carbon is risky due to the different timescales
associated with these carbon pools. Carbon is locked permanently in fossil-fuel deposits unless
extracted for human use while biotic carbon pools can change considerably in a timeframe of
years. Moreover, the carbon taken up during the 40–100 years it takes for a forest to approach
its maximum biomass could be lost suddenly, for example, in the event of a catastrophic fire,
together with the soil carbon which would be oxidised directly by fire. The temperature of the
soil would also be higher for a relatively long period thus increasing activity and soil respiration
with a consequent release of carbon (Lashof et al., 1999).
Furthermore, human activities might increase the carbon stock in the biosphere in one place but
this might lead to losses from the biosphere in other places. This problem is defined as leakage.
An example is that avoiding deforestation in one place might lead a transfer of the demand for
land in another area (Tipper, 1998) or to acceleration of deforestation in one other place. Indeed,
a large reforestation programme leads to greater availability of timber with a consequent
decrease in timber prices. This in turn will lead to a decrease of the rate of planting in other
places, or the reduced price for timber may even lead to the conversion of existing forests to
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agricultural use. It has to be pointed out, however, that the problem of leakage is not exclusive
to the sink’s enhancement activities. It can happen also in energy-use related activities but it is
not clear to what extent one method is more prone than the other to this phenomenon
(Schlamandinger et al., 2000).
Another aspect of the controversy is regarding the uncertainties in monitoring and accounting,
which posed problems on which gases and pools should be considered. Indeed, a good system of
accounting is important considering, for example, that some changes in land use and forestry
practices could absorb but also release CO2 and some other greenhouse gases, such as methane
and nitrous oxide, may be involved too. Devising an efficient accounting system, however, is
likely to be costly and complex (Schlamandinger et al., 2000).
The difficulties in monitoring and accounting also pose the problem of accuracy in calculating
the carbon removals that should qualify as credits under the Kyoto Protocol. Indeed, an
improvement in the accuracy of the calculations could lead to the identification of an increase in
the actual removal taking place, and as a consequence LULUCF credits could equal the
expected reduction below the 1990 baseline. This means that instead of achieving actual
reductions in the CO2 emissions, parties would have a windfall of credits to meet the Kyoto
targets and the emissions from fossil fuel use may even increase (Lashof et al., 1999).
2.4. Opinions and different parties’ position
Studies carried out by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) demonstrated
that in all the relevant timeframes the uptake of carbon by the oceans and terrestrial biosphere
were essential in the stabilisation of atmospheric CO2 levels (Lashof et al., 1999), suggesting
that their inclusion in the climate change strategy should be welcomed. However, Lashof and
Hare (1999) point out that the carbon cycle models utilised computed the uptake by some of the
agents without considering the possible effects of climate change, for example possible changes
in ocean circulation and biological activity, when calculating the uptake from oceans. Another
possible effect would be the increasing importance of respiration, as the climate warms, in
relation to the CO2 fertilisation, which along with land use changes could lead to increased loss
from the terrestrial biosphere. Some authors go as far as predicting that the terrestrial biosphere
could even turn into a net source of carbon.
Studies carried out in Finland showed that the impact of individual forest activities can indeed
be negligible; however, the carbon balance in a forest can be significantly influenced through a
suite of forest management practices (Indufor, 2001). It would therefore be advisable to include
well-planned forestry programmes to help the parties meet their targets. As an example of the
potential of combining different management practices, Table 4 shows the predicted impact on
the carbon balance of some forest management activities carried out in Finland.
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Table 4. Impact of some forest management activities in Finland in 2008–12 (Indufor,
2001)
Activity
Impact (1000s tonnes
C/yr)
+ sink/–source
Forest fires
– 25
Prescribed burning
– 16
More rapid regeneration
+ 11
More secure regeneration
+ 117
Note
Forest fires occur so seldomly in
Finland that their number cannot
be feasibly reduced
In the long term, could be carbonneutral since residues would
combust, may increase carbon
emissions from top-soils
New forest generation created
sooner
New forest generation created
sooner
Reforestation of exhausted
+ 117
peat production areas
May require fertilisation
Improvement of young
stands
– 480
Early thinnings lead to slightly
decreased growth in volume terms
but improved stand characteristics
Fertilisation
Retention trees
Changes in rotation
periods
First time drainage and
ditch cleaning
+ 76
– 27
Forest protection
+ 989
Collection of logging
residues
?
± 6 594
+ 2 207
Decreased net growth
Temporary stock change, estimated
impact of a ± 1 year change
Improved tree growth
Growth in currently protected
forest area
Removal of nutrients may lead to
slightly lower growth, but if
residues replace fossil fuels in rural
energy production, there will be a
clearly positive carbon impact
In general, different parties assumed different positions responding to their individual needs.
The present state of affairs in Europe is fairly optimistic. The target accepted by the EU of an
8 % reduction has been half fulfilled. Between 1990 and 1999, GHG emissions have been
reduced by 4 %. However, this reduction does not reflect a clear effort in cutting down on
emissions. The decrease results from reductions in the UK and Germany, and even there it has
been more of a positive externality rather than the result of a targeted policy towards GHG
emission reductions (the UK switched from coal to natural gas and in Germany there was an
industrial conversion in the former German Democratic Republic). The European Union
adopted a leading role in the climate talks, being in favour of the inclusion of carbon sinks but,
in view of uncertainty over their scale and permanence, to limit the extent to which they can be
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used to meet the agreed targets and to postpone their inclusion until the real implications could
be made clear. The EU had to compromise during the Marrakesh talks in order to maintain the
support of other countries, resulting in a less ambitious protocol (Moreira da Silva, 2002).
The EU had the support of the G77/China group which advocated the introduction of very strict
limits on the inclusion of carbon sinks. The main concern seemed to be the creation of long-term
land commitments which could hinder the possibility of development. Some countries were also
concerned that allowing forestry projects to be considered as clean development mechanisms
could result in slower technology transfer due to the forestry projects competing with other more
ambitious emission-cutting projects. On the other hand, some countries put forward the idea that
the inclusion of sinks could help economic development and help in the preservation of their
ecological resources. The latter position was shared by Latin American countries, interested in
preserving their forests and encouraging sustainable development (Schlamadinger et al., 2000).
In general, the countries favourable to the inclusion of carbon sinks were those with abundant
forest resources, for example New Zealand, Norway and Finland, which, however, called for
country-specific data in order to understand the real impact on meeting the agreed commitments
(Schlamandinger et al., 2000). Other countries, with forest resources, such as Canada, Australia
and the US (although the latter was not directly involved in the Marrakesh negotiations),
expressed fundamental unwillingness to submit their energy economies to international
regulations. They therefore clearly showed their interest in the carbon sinks.
Russia is an interesting case, and its position caused concern in the negotiation. First of all,
because of political and economic reasons its emissions are lower than they were in 1990, so
that Russia has actually got a huge number of CO2-equivalents surplus, denominated ‘hot air’.
The ‘hot air’ problem does not only apply to Russia but also to the Ukraine and other east
European countries. Not only does the surplus of emission rights not correspond to actual
reductions in the emissions of greenhouse gases, but the ‘hot air’ can also have a strong
influence on the world market price for emission rights (Michaelowa, 2001). Moreover, in the
course of the negotiations in Marrakesh, Russia obtained large concessions more than doubling
the assigned amount of carbon sinks that can be used to meet the agreed targets. The Russian
sink under the Marrakesh Accords amounts to 121 million tonnes of CO2 equivalents per year
and if some other countries with a similar economic development path should take up emission
targets, then the amount of ‘hot air’ on the global market may increase. This might happen, for
example, for Kazakhstan, which manifested the desire to take up emission targets. In the
Kazakhstan case, the ‘hot air’ would amount to 80 million tonnes of CO2 equivalents
(Michaelowa, 2001).
Also, Japan showed great interest in the carbon-sinks provision. This might be due to the fact
that, since the Kyoto Protocol bases the reduction on the level of emissions in 1990, it would be
more costly for more efficient energy users like Japan to cut down on emissions (Athanasiou et
al., 2001). It has to be said, however, that Japan was in favour of inclusion of the LULUCF
activities only when better accounting methodologies were developed, supported in this by
Canada, which suggested that credits assigned may be adjusted because of the uncertainties in
the measurement.
Finally, a very strong position was that of the oil-exporting countries, which strongly advocated
the carbon sinks inclusion as a way to offset emissions produced by the burning of fossil fuels.
Also Saudi Arabia and other oil exporting countries carried out lobbying to obtain financial
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compensation for lost revenues when the developed countries cut down on the consumption of
oil to meet their emission targets (Taylor, 2002).
On the whole then, it was impossible to reach consensus on the protocol if not by making large
concessions to the countries that, because of the withdrawal of the US, held great power in the
negotiations. The caps placed on the use of carbon sinks stipulated in Bonn were not accepted
by Russia, who bargained and obtained almost double the amount of credits they were originally
assigned. Accepting domestic forestry activities as carbon sinks effectively grants free CO 2
credits. Indeed, these forestry activities were normally in place independently from climate
change action and also the carbon sequestration is due to re-growth after deforestation, CO2
fertilisation and nitrogen deposition. That means that the growth and therefore the absorption of
carbon is occurring not because of direct human induced changes (Athanasiou et al., 2001).
3. Mitigating climate change through forest management
Having carbon sinks been included in the Marrakesh Accords, it is now important to consider
carefully the policy and management options available in order to gain benefits from the
provision.
Biotic policy options deserve careful consideration because they have great potential in terms of
mitigating climate change and also developing other public policy objectives, such as stopping
deforestation and increasing biodiversity (World Resource Institute, 2002). Indeed, improving
forest and soil management can improve water and nutrients retention, reduce soil erosion,
improve wildlife habitat and increase biodiversity (IPCC, 2001b). However, Lashof and Hare
(1999) indicate that, since atmospheric stabilisation requires a great increase in stored biotic
carbon and a constrained fossil-fuel emissions budget, an appropriate policy response would be
to create incentives for preserving and enhancing carbon sinks and reservoirs and, at the same
time, incentives to reduce fossil-fuel consumption.
These measures, though, have to be applied in the right geographical location in order to
maximise the benefits; for example, slowing reforestation will make more sense in some
countries where deforestation is taking place at incredible rates. The techniques exist but very
few examples of successful policies and projects can be found. For example, many protected
areas are degraded and sustainable natural forest management remains rare (World Resource
Institute, 2002).
3.1. Forestry options to mitigate climate change
A way of mitigating climate change could be understanding and manipulating the carbon cycle,
taking into consideration that the largest carbon exchange occurs between the atmosphere and
plants (Papadopol, 2002).
Sequestration of the extra carbon present in the atmosphere is possible, but while before the
Industrial Revolution it was permanently locked into underground pools, it may now be locked
in the biomass only for a short period. This is due to the decomposition of biomass and soil
organic matter releasing the carbon back into the atmosphere.
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As a consequence, carbon sequestered in forests represents transient and impermanent pools. In
this context the soils and roots of terrestrial ecosystems may play a very important role, since
two-thirds of terrestrial carbon is found below ground. Indeed, through root/soil interactions, the
forest soils may sequester carbon released by decomposing plant litter (Balasini, 2001).
Moreover, once stored below ground, carbon has slower turnover rates than the above-ground
carbon, thus resulting in carbon being locked for longer periods and protected from fire and
other disturbances (Papadopol, 2002).
Even considering the underground storage, carbon sequestration is still a temporary solution, but
it is important to bear in mind that this delay could buy a relatively long time to develop
alternative solutions. These alternative solutions may include techniques such as underground
and underwater storage of CO2. Unlike grasses and most crops that either have a shorter life
cycle or even release carbon at the end of each season (Balasini, 2001), forest biomass can
accumulate carbon over a time scale of 50 to 100 years. In fact, a well-planned, active forestry
programme could lock carbon in biomass intended for fuel-wood on average for two or three
centuries and even longer if the carbon is locked underground (Papadopol, 2002).
Commercial management of forests can also have positive externalities. In general, the main
objective of managing a natural, or semi-natural forest is wood production for industrial use,
which correlates positively with the development of a good carbon stock. Notwithstanding the
fact that a forest owner tends to maximise the value of the forest produce rather than the mere
volume, generally speaking forest management practices tend to promote total growth. This
normally promotes carbon sequestration in the above-ground biomass and it is thought it could
also improve below-ground sequestration (Indufor, 2001). It is important to note however, that
some forest management practices, such as peatland drainage and heavy/deep soil preparation,
can lead to release of soil carbon.
3.2. Difficulties in estimating the potential of forestry options: factors in forest ecosystems
There is potential then in forest management practices but some factors likely to impact a forest
ecosystem have to be taken into consideration. For example, the projection for population
growth shows that great pressure will be exerted on the forested areas with a massive shift of
land use to industrial activities and agriculture, with consequences on the carbon cycle.
Forestry projects have to be tailored according to the geographic and topographic location.
Although carbon cycling occurs year round through photosynthesis and decomposition, the
permanence in the stock of the carbon also depends on the geographic location of the forest
because the rate of decomposition is influenced by temperature and other factors linked to the
latitude. It was found, for example, that mid- and high-latitude forests act as a net carbon sink
offsetting the deforestation process taking place in the tropical forests. The decomposition rate
of biomass is also strongly influenced by factors such as species composition, site conditions,
disturbance and management practices.
Another factor to be considered is that CO2 fertilisation produces more rapid growth and
increased photosynthesis, thus allowing shorter rotation periods. This is more pronounced when
there is a shortage of nutrient or other environmental stresses which may be the case for midand high latitude forests. For example, studies confirmed that European forests are likely to
undergo an accumulation of biomass due to CO2 fertilisation, because of more active
photosynthesis and extended growing seasons under changing climate conditions, assuming a
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good water supply, with a growing stock of 25 %. However, CO2 saturation will have to be
taken into consideration too, with respiration assuming progressively more importance and
increasing the net release of carbon (Lashof et al., 1999).
All the above shows how large uncertainty exists about the prediction of future forest
distribution composition and productivity, and hence the difficulty in estimating their actual
potential as carbon sinks. At the moment global models to predict the role of improved forest
management in mitigating carbon fluxes have not yet been developed.
Nevertheless, the most promising ways to increase carbon sequestration in any one forest seem
to be:







slowing deforestation and forest degradation;
expanding existing forests and enhance their role as sinks through forest management
practices;
creation of new sinks;
restoring forest coverage;
suppressing fires;
manage forests with shorter rotations, as young forests have a higher rate of sequestration.
CO2 fertilisation is thought to increase forest productivity;
substitution of fossil fuels with renewable wood-based fuels.
3.3. Comments on some forestry options
Restoring the forest cover and enhancing the carbon sinks
Because the rate of CO2 liberation from the soil varies with soil temperature, then direct
exposure of the soil to radiation and aeration could release larger quantities of carbon stocked. It
is reasonable to draw the conclusion that the manipulation of stand density and shadow could
significantly reduce the liberation of the stored carbon thus creating a larger sink.
A good practice to obtain a more efficient carbon sink would be to restore the forest coverage
immediately after harvesting has taken place, in order to maintain an active and almost
continuous carbon sequestration process. While reforesting, managers should take the
opportunity to manipulate the species composition in order to maximise productivity and
selecting also the plants better adapted to modified climatic conditions, thus improving their
function as sinks.
Also, immediate reforestation avoids long periods with the forest soil exposed, thus avoiding
rapid decomposition of the soil organic matter and consequent release of CO2 in the atmosphere.
Besides, rapid reforestation after harvesting can protect sensitive areas from erosion.
The importance of canopy cover in carbon sequestration is also demonstrated by the estimates of
carbon fluxes from afforestation and deforestation activities. Indeed, some estimates reported by
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in their report on LULUCF activities would be
quite reduced if the calculations were carried out considering a smaller canopy cover
percentage. The use of higher thresholds in modelling to estimate the carbon fluxes normally
accounts for deforestation and also forest degradation, although, on the other hand, it does not
account for the establishment or clearing of open forests (IPCC, 2000).
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Expanding existing carbon sinks
Large existing forested areas are presently not sequestering carbon at the maximum of their
potential. Management options exist that would improve the sink capacity of these forests.
These include: adding chemical fertilisers to boost productivity, reduce shifting cultivation and
marginal agriculture, improve the retention of debris and plant litter after logging operations and
reforesting, which would stop erosion and excessively rapid decomposition of soil organic
matter.
The management practices adopted of course vary widely with the species present, the
environmental conditions of the site and also with the end purpose of the forest or plantation. In
plantations for pulpwood production for example, carbon storage can be made more effective by
increasing productivity and shortening the rotation cycle, which can be obtained with a careful
selection of species, management practices and possibly selecting a productive soil. It has to be
considered though, that these practices to boost regeneration or increase productivity involve
additional costs and the use of fertilisers can have negative externalities such as leaching and
contamination of water resources.
New plantations
Plantations of productive species, including mono-specific and industrial plantations, can satisfy
the requirements of the timber industry and also act as useful carbon sinks.
The establishment of these kinds of plantations should aim at replacing existing low
productivity vegetated land. In order to face the occurrence of extreme phenomena, likely to be
brought about by climate change, it is important to select carefully the species needed according
to the soil conditions. In some cases the right selection can even bring about an amelioration of
extreme soil conditions allowing the planting of other species too. For example, on sites
characterised by highly permeable soil, typical pioneer species should be utilised, being more
resistant they have a better chance of survival and also they play a fundamental role in soil
organic matter build-up. The accumulation of organic matter will improve the other soil factors,
thus rendering the soil conditions less harsh for future plantations: better structure, improved
nutrient balance, more water retention, more organisms ensuring nutrient cycling and good
porosity.
Shifting species
Because of modified environmental conditions due to the predicted change in climate, there
seems to be a tendency to northward shifting of species. In establishing a commercial plantation
and a potential carbon sink it would be useful to predict the expected shift and select the best
suited species in order to maximise both productivity and carbon sequestering ability. The same
applies to increased water stress due to climatic change favouring a shift towards droughtresistant species. It also needs to be pointed out that with the climate change, species might
become more susceptible to pest outbreaks, which should be taken into consideration when
selecting the species for a plantation (Lashof et al., 1999).
Increasing fire-prevention measures
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Intensifying of forest fire prevention measures is essential to prevent first of all release of stored
carbon as CO2 emissions, maintaining soil cover, maintaining the effectiveness of the carbon
sink, and finally to prevent economic loss. An increase in the incidence of fires is to be expected
in those zones where the climate is likely to become drier and also in areas of substantial
population increase.
However, Lahsof and Hare (1999) point out that fire suppression could produce a real increase
in biospheric carbon stocks but the accumulation of fuel could lead to potentially even more
dangerous fires. They also note that the emissions released during natural forest fires should be
accounted for to the same extent that fire suppression is allowed to generate carbon credits.
Replacement of fossil fuels with wood fuels
A potentially very rewarding practice to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases could be the
shift towards the utilisation of biomass energy instead of fossil fuel combustion. The CO2
released from the combustion of biomass fuels is cycled back to forest biomass through
photosynthesis.
Short rotation woody crops have great potential in the production of greener fuels. Conversely,
long rotation species could be utilised on less fertile soils and be utilised for durable timber
products locking carbon in biomass for longer periods.
Even if the measures described reflect good management practices and help sequestering
relatively large amounts of CO2 from the atmosphere, it is beyond doubt that it is only a
temporary measure and they can only delay important ecological consequences. These can only
be prevented by devising a solution for permanent storage of the extra carbon present in the
atmosphere (Papadopol, 2002).
4. Recommendations
As remarked in previous paragraphs, the inclusion of carbon sinks in the Kyoto Protocol can
help the parties meet their agreed targets in a cost-effective manner and can also buy precious
time to develop valid technologies in order to achieve a serious cut-down in emissions.
However, seeing the temporary character of this measure, a good framework of policies and
measures has to be adopted in order to encourage an increase in energy-use efficiency and
serious curtailment of CO2 emissions.
The net emissions from land use changes are expected to remain constant, but the emissions
from fossil fuel burning are expected to further increase according to development of the world
population. Although some fossil-fuel resources will be depleted in the next century, coal will
be available for centuries. Besides, since the emissions of CO2 are higher in solid fossil fuels
compared to emissions produced by liquid and gaseous fuels, a switch to coal due to shortages
in oil or natural gas would lead to an even more rapid increase in emissions of CO2. In order to
stabilise the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere at safe levels, a cut of approximately 30 % of
the current emissions is necessary.
This objective can be achieved through energy-efficiency measures and the utilisation of carbon
neutral energy sources, namely nuclear and solar energy. However, because of safety and policy
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barriers nuclear energy systems are limited to very few applications and to offset fossil-fuel use
only, solar energy should be considered.
In order to achieve efficiency a lot of potential lies in the residential building and transportation
sectors. While the means to achieve efficiency in residential building sectors exist, by reducing
heat loss and utilising solar energy, effective means to encourage public transport to decrease
inefficient private transport have not yet been devised. The efficiency of energy conversion can
be improved by the establishment of combined heat and power plants.
By solar energy, is meant both direct solar radiation and also indirect, e.g. solar energy stored in
biomass as chemical energy, or in wind as kinetic energy. In particular, biofuels have great
potential to substitute fossil fuels in almost every application. Sources of biofuels are currently
residues from agriculture and forestry.
The limitations to the implementation of measures to reduce the emissions of CO2 are mainly of
an economic nature. This is because traditional fossil fuels have prices that make investment in
energy efficiency measures not rational from an economic point of view, seeing as they do not
yield acceptable payback times. Considering the potential danger of climatic change, policy
actions are necessary and one of the most effective ways of encouraging a switch to carbon
neutral fuels or investment in energy-efficiency measures would be to increase the price of fossil
fuels. This can be done through a carbon tax or, indeed, through the implementation of an
emissions trading scheme. This would internalise the costs of the negative externalities
associated to the emissions of CO2 and encourage the development of a more efficient energy
economy (Spitzer, 1998).
In any case, as the inclusion of carbon sinks have positive side effects, such as improved
biodiversity (except in situations where biologically diverse non-forest ecosystems are replaced
by single-species plantations), prevention of soil erosion and salinisation (World Resource
Institute, 2002 and IPCC, 2001b), policies have to be introduced that encourage the adoption of
good forestry practices to gain the maximum benefits for any one forestry project.
Studies by the Finnish Consulting Services in Sustainable Forestry and Environment (Indufor)
underline the close link between the verification of carbon sinks and sustainable forest
management, which could offer interesting ideas for devising appropriate options to promote the
establishment of quality carbon sinks. The requisites to be awarded the certificate of sustainable
forest management are not geared to improve the carbon uptake, but generally speaking these
practices can increase the sequestration potential and thus have improved sink activity as a ‘byproduct’. For example, some of this certification calls for diminished heavy soil preparation
methods, which lower the emissions of soil carbon during regeneration and drainage. In other
cases, if they do not promote the carbon sequestration in soils they are at least carbon-neutral.
Certification of sustainable management is currently widely practised and expanding. Most
national schemes are implemented following two international frameworks: the Forest
Stewardship Council and the Pan-European Forest Certification. At the moment most of the
valid forest management certificates have been issued in Europe, with 30 % of the certified
forests found in the Nordic countries.
Certification of carbon sequestration in forests and sustainable forest management have similar
elements and combining them could be a possible way of improving cost efficiency.
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There are three elements in which sustainable forest management could contribute to the
certification of carbon sequestration. First of all, as sustainable forest management is a longterm concept, it can contribute to ensuring the permanency of the carbon sink. Secondly, in
order to be awarded the certificate, a forest manager has to have a well-devised management
plan, which involves the identification of the social and environmental impacts of the project
carried out, which is also useful in keeping track of the impact of the sink on the carbon balance.
Finally, forest monitoring systems needed for a sustainable management strategy could also
provide the technical capacities to measure changes in the carbon stock.
This shows how the qualitative criteria in carbon verification can be met, so that carbon sink
assessment only requires measurements of the carbon stock. If carbon sequestration is
considered as one of the outputs of forest management, and if revenue is obtained for the carbon
off-sets, then forest managers would have a further incentive to obtain sustainable forest
management certificates with all the consequent positive by-products. This system would
provide a major boost to cost efficiency (Indufor, 2001).
5. Conclusions
Since the Rio Earth Summit (1992), 10 years have passed in the process of negotiation and in
the meantime the serious problem of climate change may have worsened. Moreover, the US
failed to participate in the protocol and, being the emitter of more than 25 % of all emissions,
this represents a serious limitation to the effectiveness of the protocol (Moreira da Silva, 2002).
In the meantime, the Marrakesh Accords have been signed and every provision of the Bonn
agreements has been turned into legal text. A compliance system has been established and the
flexibility mechanisms have been accepted. Besides, a special package for least developed
countries that are vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change has been adopted, in order
to provide the resources and techniques to adapt their fragile economies to the effects of climate
change (European Commission, 2001).
The Kyoto Protocol with all its defects and uncertainties represents a positive achievement.
Climate change is a global problem and it is remarkable that with exceptions the problem has
been recognised and that a global effort has been initiated. Carbon sinks and sources have been
included, and the way they are treated reflects the positions and interests of the different
countries involved. In general, the system devised is not optimal but represents a first step
(Schlamadinger et al., 2000).
The protocol is a good starting point, although the inclusion of carbon sinks certainly weakens
its effectiveness. Indeed, the reduction obtained with carbon sinks would lack the permanence of
a serious cut-down in emissions, but they can help in meeting the agreed targets in the first
commitment period, considering the little time available. Nevertheless, Lashof and Hare (1999)
believe that in order to stabilise the atmospheric greenhouse gases concentration at safe levels
both tight limits on total fossil fuels combustion and effective management of biotic carbon
stocks are necessary. Moreover, they underline that technological development must not be
undermined by the utilisation of carbon sinks to meet the targets agreed upon.
It has to be said that numerous authors agree in deploring the fact that the Marrakesh Accords
further weakened the Kyoto Protocol. Athanasiou and Baer (2001) go as far as defining the
accords as a dilution to the Bonn compromise to the Kyoto Protocol. Similarly, according to an
HWWA discussion paper (2001), the international climate policy regime is strong from an
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institutional point of view but weak concerning the emissions targets that are likely not to go
beyond business-as-usual for the countries with commitments (Michaelowa, 2001).
However, the result obtained is a great achievement because if the Kyoto Protocol was
completely dismissed another considerable period of time, possibly another decade would have
been necessary to negotiate another protocol. This alternative would have been very much
worse. It is important also from a symbolic point of view because for the first time a serious
global problem has been approached through a global effort (Moreira da Silva, 2002)
Secondly, and most importantly carbon will have a price and this is extremely significant
because it is going to change radically the way energy is produced and consumed, thus making
an impact on the way consumers, corporations, governments and multilateral institutions
address energy issues (Athanasiou et al., 2001). From now on a carbon economy has been
created and the externalities associated with global warming have to be internalised. This
strongly reflects the principle of the ‘polluters pay’, hopefully creating a market situation where
the winners will be those able to produce the same product using cleaner technologies (Moreira
da Silva, 2002).
Another positive point is that a coalition has been created between the EU and the G77, which,
together with the environmental NGOs, has assumed a central position in the global
environmental debate. This coalition is still rather weak as demonstrated by the fact that they
could not prevent the weakening of the Kyoto Protocol, but it was strong enough at least to
prevent the US from influencing heavily in the negotiations. It is a very significant coalition that
will bring the issue of climate change and sustainable development to the fore in international
politics. This is very positive and important especially when the issue of North/South equity is
assuming enormous importance and with the Johannesburg Summit on Sustainable
Development taking place soon (August 2002).
Everything considered, including the concessions made to the gang of four in order not to lose
their participation, the Marrakesh Accords still represent a very significant achievement
especially considering the international situation after the terrorist attacks of 11 September.
Despite the unsettled international situation, the anti-terrorist coalition, the Palestine crisis, this
first climate treaty, despite its weaknesses, is a step forward for democratic, multilateral
environmental governance.
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6. Bibliography

Athanasiou, T. and Baer, P., (2001), ‘Climate change after Marrakesh: Should
environmentalists still support the Kyoto Protocol?’ Foreign policy in focus discussion
paper. http://www.fpif.org/papers/marrakech.html

Balasini, M. (2001), ‘The Kyoto Protocol and carbon sinks’, European Parliament,
Directorate-General for Research, Luxembourg.

Dessai, S. (2001), ‘The climate regime from The Hague to Marrakesh: Saving or sinking the
Kyoto Protocol?’, Working Paper 12, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research.
http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/publications/working_papers/wp12.pdf

European Commission (2001), ‘Climate change: COP 7 — Marrakesh’, Final report.
http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/climat/Marrakech_report.pdf

Ford, J. (2002), ‘Marrakesh — COP 7 October to November 2001 — Summary and
discussion of the proceedings’, ECI, Oxford.

Indufor, Finnish Consulting Services in Sustainable Forestry and Environment (2001),
‘Assessing forest-based carbon sinks in the Kyoto Protocol: Forest management and carbon
sequestration’, Discussion Paper 2.
http://www.vn.fi/ktm/eng/climate/forest_manag.pdf

IPCC (2000), ‘Special report on land use, land-use change and forestry’, Watson, R. T.,
Noble, I. R., Bolin, B., Ravindranath, N. H., Verardo D. J., and Dokken, D. J., report by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

IPCC (2001a), ‘Climate change 2001: The scientific basis’, J. T. Houghton et al., report by
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

IPCC (2001b), ‘Climate change 2001: Mitigation’, B. Metz et al., report by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

Langrock, T. (2001), ‘The sinks controversy’,
http://www.wupperinst.org/sinks-controversy.pdf

Lashof, D. and Hare, B. (1999), ‘The role of biotic carbon stocks in stabilising greenhouse
gas concentrations at safe levels’, in Environmental science and policy 2: 101–109.

Mahony, H. (2002), ‘The European Union ratifies the Kyoto Protocol’, in EU observer.
http://www.euobserver.com/index.phtml?aid=6496&sid=9

Michaelowa, A. (2001), ‘Rio, Kyoto, Marrakesh — Ground rules for the global climate
policy regime’, Hamburgisches Welt-Wirtschafts-Archiv (HWWA) Discussion paper 152.

Moreira da Silva, J. (2002), ‘Report on the proposal for a Council decision concerning the
conclusion, on behalf of the European Community, of the Kyoto Protocol to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the joint fulfilment of commitments
thereunder’, (COM(2001) 579 — C5-0019/2002 — 2001/0248 (CNS)) Final A5-0025/2002
European Parliament.

Papadopol, C. S., (14 March 2002) Climate change mitigation: Are there any forestry
options? Ontario Forest Research Institute, Ontario, Canada.
http://www.eco-web.com/cgi-local/sfc?a=editorial/index.html&b=editorial/05934-03.html
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in
Oxford
energy
forum.
Global Climate change Policy: The Role of Carbon Sinks

Schlamadinger, B. and Marland, G. (2000), Land use and global climate change: Forests,
land management and the Kyoto Protocol, Pew Centre on Global Climate Change.
http://www.pewclimate.org/projects/land_use.pdf

Sohngen, B., Mendelsohn, R. and Sedjo, R. (1998), ‘The effectiveness of forest carbon
sequestration strategies with system-wide adjustments’, report by the World Bank.
http://www.worldbank.org/research/abcde/washington_11/pdfs/sohngen.pdf

Spitzer, J. (1998), ‘Reduction of CO2 emissions through energy substitution’, in Climate
change impact on agriculture and forestry, European Commission, Peter, D., Maracchi, G.,
Ghazi, A., Brussels.

Taylor, J. M. (2002), Marrakesh climate talks: Heavy on rhetoric, low on news.
http://www.heartland.org/environment/jan02/marrakech.htm

Tipper, R. (1998), ‘Mitigation of greenhouse gases emissions by forestry: a review of
technical, economic and policy concepts’, in Climate change impact on agriculture and
forestry, European Commission, Peter, D., Maracchi, G., Ghazi, A., Brussels.

World Resource Institute, 13 March 2002. http://www.wri.org/climate/carboncy.html

World Resource Institute, 13 March 2002. http://www.wri.org/climate/mitigat.html
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Full list of ‘Environment’ briefings
No and date
Title
ENVI 509, 07/2002
On the Results of the Workshop of 8
November 2001 on 'Effluent Charging
Systems in the EU Member States'
Languages
EN
ENVI 508, 06/2002
EU enlargement and pharmaceuticals:
Enlargement implications in terms of
parallel trade
EN
ENVI 507, 03/2002
EU climate change policy: Towards the
implementation of the Kyoto Protocol
EN
ENVI 506, 02/2002
Protection of the Baltic Sea in view of
enlargement
EN
ENVI 505, 01/2002
Sustainable development and
Community environment policy
FR, EN
ENVI 504, 10/2001
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
EN
ENVI 503, 09/2001
EU chemicals policy
EN
ENVI 502, 07/2001
The environmental situation in Albania
and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia:
A short overview
EN
ENVI 501, 01/2000
Environment and energy: Challenges of
enlargement
EN
These documents are all available in print:
Nicole Reiser
Fax (352) 4300-20016
and also on:
Intranet: http://www.europarl.ep.ec/studies/default.htm
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