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Unit C: Biological Molecules Notes
Chapter 2, pp. 32-41
Prescribed Learning Outcomes (it is expected that you will know...)
C1.
Demonstrate a knowledge of synthesis and hydrolysis as applied to organic polymers (p. 32)
C2.
Distinguish among carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids with respect to chemical
structure (p. 32-40)
C3.
Recognize the empirical formula of a carbohydrate (p. 32)
C4.
Differentiate among monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides (p. 32-33)
C5.
Differentiate among starch, cellulose, and glycogen (p. 33)
C6.
List the main functions of carbohydrates (p. 32)
C7.
Compare and contrast saturated and unsaturated fats in terms of molecular structure (p. 34)
C8.
Describe the location and explain the importance of the following in the human body:
a) Neutral fats b) Steroids c) Phospholipids. p. (34-35)
C9.
Draw a generalized amino acid and identify the amine, acid (carboxyl), and R-groups (p. 37)
C10.
Differentiate among the primary, secondary, tertiary, & quaternary structure of proteins (p.38-39)
C11.
List the major functions of proteins (p. 37)
C12.
Relate the general structure of the ATP molecule to its role as the “energy currency” of cells
(p.41).
VOCABULARY (check off what you know and make cards for what you don’t know):
_____ Adenine
_____ Adipose
_____ ADP
_____ Alpha helix
_____ Amino acids
_____ Amino group
_____ ATP
_____ Carbohydrate
_____ Carboxyl group
_____ Cellulose
_____ Cytosine
_____ Dehydration
synthesis
_____ Denature
_____ Deoxyribose
_____ Double helix
_____ Empirical formula
_____ Emulsify
_____ Fatty acid
_____ Glucose
_____ Glycerol
_____ Glycogen
_____ Guanine
_____ Hydrolysis
_____ Lipid
_____ Maltase
_____ Maltose
_____ Neutral fat
_____ Nucleic acid
_____ Nucleotide
_____ Peptide (di, tri,
and poly)
_____ Peptide bond
_____ Phospholipid
_____ Polymer
_____ Primary structure
_____ Protein
_____ Purine
_____ Pyrimidine
_____ Quaternary
structure
_____ Ribose
_____ Saccharide
(mono, di, tri,
and poly)
_____ Saturated
_____ Secondary
structure
_____ Simple Sugar
_____ Starch
_____ Steroid
_____ Tertiary structure
_____ Thymine
_____ Unsaturated
Synthesis and Hydrolysis
The most important biological compounds are _______________________
POLYMERS (poly = _________ )
 The polymers are: __________, ____________, _________
(fats), and __________________ (DNA/RNA).
 A polymer is made up of a chain of many ______________
linked together
MONOMERS (mono = ________ )
 Monomers are: ________________, _____________, ____________, and
___________________.
 These are made (_____________________) or broken down
(_______________) over and over in living cells.
Large polymers are also called ________________________
Macromolecules are formed by _________________, usually by
reactions involving the loss of water =
________________________.
DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS
____________ are joined together during dehydration synthesis.
Chains of monomers are called __________________________
Note: enzymes that speed up dehydration synthesis reactions are
called ______________________.
HYDROLYSIS
The breaking of a polymer into units is ___________________
(i.e. done by adding water to polymer).
Note: enzymes that speed up hydrolysis reactions are called
____________________________
CARBOHYDRATES
Where does the name come from? Hydrated Carbons: _____________________
Carbohydrates have the empirical formula of (CH20)n where n = the # of times the chain is repeated.
The carbons, hydrogens and oxygens are found in the ratio of _____________ and are made up of a
repeating chain of sugars.
Sugars are also known as __________________________.
Carbohydrates usually end in ‘_______’.
Can you think of any examples?
a) CARBOHYDRATES: ______________________________
The basic sugar molecule is _____________: __________.
Glucose has a _________ structure.
Other monosaccharides include ____________, ___________, deoxyribose
b) CARBOHYDRATES: ________________________
When two sugars bind together via ________________ _________________ a disaccharide
is formed.
Glucose + Glucose ------------------------------->
________________________
glucose + glucose forms the sugar ___________________
glucose + fructose forms the sugar ___________________
galactose + glucose forms the sugar __________________
c) CARBOHYDRATES: ___________________________
When many sugars bind together via dehydration synthesis four
types of polysaccharides may be formed:
• A) _______________
• B) _______________
• C) _______________
• D) _______________
LABEL THE FOLLOWING PICTURES AS: A, B, C, or D
1. CARBOHYDRATES: polysaccharides ______________________
•
•
•
•
•
The ______________ of plants are made of cellulose
They are _____________ of glucose molecules with ___________________.
The linkage between the Carbon atoms of the sugars is different than starch and glycogen
No mammal can break this bond
This is why we _____________ cellulose = _________
2. CARBOHYDRATES: polysaccharides _____________________
•
__________________________________ as starch
•
•
Starch is made up of many glucose molecules linked together
Starch has _______________
3. CARBOHYDRATES: polysaccharides ______________________
•
_____________________________ (extra glucose) as glycogen
•
•
•
We store glycogen in our ______________________
Glycogen is made up of many glucose molecules linked together
Glycogen has _________________
4. CARBOHYDRATES: polysaccharides _______________________
 Made by ___________________
 Long glucose chains linked with
_______________ bonds.
 Very ______________
 Makes structures like ___________________, fingernails, ______________, and beaks
MAIN FUNCTIONS OF CARBS
1. _______________: when the ________ between
Carbon atoms are broken, the energy ___________
can be used by cells.
Carbohydrates are the primary energy molecules for all
life.
2. _____________: Cellulose is the major structural compound in
plants (is used in the _______________________).
LIPIDS
Lipids are made up of the elements ___________ but
in no set ratio.
Lipids are large molecules that are _______________.
Neutral Fats: ____________________________
1. Composed of __________ bonded to ____________.
2. Fatty acids contain a _____ _________ of 1618 Carbons with an acid end.
3. Glycerol is a ___________ ____________ with
3 alcohol (OH) groups
4. These two molecules bind together via
dehydration synthesis
There are 2 Types of Triglycerides:
1. __________________________:






There are __________________ in the carbon chains of the fatty acids.
The carbons are filled with ____________.
_______________.
They mostly come from ___________.
Become ________ at room temperature.
Examples: lard, ________, animal fats…
2. ___________________________:





There are one (________unsaturated) or more __________ (_____unsaturated).
Mostly come from plants.
They are _________ at room temperature.
_______________
Examples: __________, corn oil, palm oil…
PHOSPHOLIPIDS:
Are used to make up the two layered _____________ of all cells.
In phospholipids, the __________ fatty acid group of a triglyceride is
____________ by an inorganic _____________ group (______).
This creates a _______________:
The _________ end is water soluble (hydro_______)
The _________ is not water soluble (hydro_______)
STEROIDS:
Steroids structurally look very different from lipids, but
are also _________ _____________.
They are made up of ______________ molecules fused
together.
Examples: ____________, estrogen, ______________,
and vitamin ____.
Used as ________________
Uses of Lipids
1. ____________________ for ___________ (more efficient spacewise than glycogen or starch).
2. ____________ and _____________ in animals
3. Making some ____________ (steroids)
4. Structure of __________________. Without lipids, we would have no cells.
Proteins
1. Proteins are made up of the elements _______________ (but in no set ratio).
2. Proteins are chains of _________________ (usually ______ or more) that bond together via
dehydration synthesis.
3. ______ of the average human body is made up of protein.
1. The building blocks of Proteins are amino acids.
2. There are ____________ to an amino acids:
1. __________Group (NH2 or NH3+) acts as a base
(accepts H+)
2. __________Group (COOH or COO-) acts as an acid
(donates H+)
3. _____ Group: there are ______ different possible R
groups
20 Different Amino Acids:
Amino acids bond together via dehydration synthesis.
The amino acids bind together with a ________________.
The PEPTIDE bond is formed between ____________ and one
water is lost (dehydration synthesis).
When the original two amino acids form the beginning of the chain
(with one peptide bond) it is called a _______________.
Then the chain grows to become a ______________.
Ultimately you end up with a _________________ (which
can have anywhere between _____________ amino
acids).
Another name for a polypeptide is ____________
Every protein is different because the ________________
___________ is different.
The chains come together differently due to the order of
the different _______________________ and how they __________ together.
This structural difference also makes the polypeptides (proteins) functionally different.
Levels of Protein Structure
1. ___________________________ structure
o This is the __________ of how proteins are formed.
o It is simply the _______________________ joined together with peptide bonds.
o It is the amino acid sequence that determines the nature and chemistry of the protein.
o If you ________________ of amino acids, the protein may not be able to
_____________.
2. ___________________________ structure
o This is the second step in the formation of a protein.
o When a peptide bond is formed, a double bonded oxygen is left over, which is partially
__________ (the carboxyl group: _____).
o It is attracted to the ________________ amino group from other amino acids in the
chain.
o This attraction forms a _____________________.
o This causes the chain to twist into either a spiral called an ______ __________ or a
_____________________________.
3. ____________________________ structure
o The next interactions take
place
___________________.
o Some R groups are ___________ and will interact with other reactive R groups in the
chain. These are the amino acids that are either ___________ or that have a
________________.
o The interactions ( ________ attractions and ____________) will fold the molecule over
into a highly _______________________ ____________.
o It is the 3-D shape that will determine the protein’s _________ or role in the body.
4. ____________________________ structure
o The last level in protein formation is _________ in all proteins.
o However, some proteins are actually ___________ molecules joined to form a
functional protein. They are held together with an _______________.
o Two examples:
_____________ has _____ subunits
_____________ has _____ subunits.
The Whole Process
1o ____________ Bonds
2o ____________ Bonds
3o Interactions between ____________
4o ____________ Bonds
DENATURATION:
The final shape of a protein (its tertiary or quaternary structure) is very __________ and enables it to
do its job/function.
Any ____________ in a proteins’ __________ will affect its _________
Denaturation is when a protein's tertiary structure is lost.
This happens when the bonds between the ______ ________ are ___________
When a protein is denatured, the protein can’t do its job and becomes _________________.
How can this happen? There are three common ways:
1. _________________:
High temperatures affect the weak Hydrogen bonds and can ___________________ them,
thus changing the structural shape.
A slight increase in temperature an cause a ____________ change (ie: fever).
A high temperature increase can cause an _____________ change (ie: cooking an egg).
2. ___________________:
Heavy metals such as ___________________ are large atoms that are attracted the R groups
of amino acids.
They bond to the ______________ and distort the protein’s shape.
This is usually _______________ (they usually don’t want to ‘let go’).
3. ___________________:
As some of the R groups are acids and some are bases, every protein (enzyme) has a
_________________.
Any change in pH causes a change in the
_____________ _________ interactions and this will
change the __________ of the protein.
Functions of Proteins
1. Structural: proteins help make up all structures in living
things
a. Actin & Myosin: __________ proteins
b. _________: nails, hair, horns, feathers
c. ________: bones, teeth, cartilage, tendon, ligament, blood vessels, skin matrix
2. Functional: other proteins help us to keep our bodies _____________________ and to
____________________.
a. __________: are proteins that are ____________ which speed up reactions and control
all cell activities.
3. ________________: once we have used up all of our carbohydrates and fats, proteins will be
used for energy.
Proteins are worth the ________ amount of ___________ per gram.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are ____________ molecules that are found in the ____________ of cells.
There are two types, both of which are very __________.
1. DNA: __________________________
2. RNA: __________________________
All nucleic acids are composed of units called _____________, which are composed of three submolecules:
1. _______________ (ribose or deoxyribose)
2. _____________________
3. _____________________ (purine or pyrimidine)
Nitrogen base: ____________________
 _________________ and ________________
 Have ______ rings
 Found in _________________
 Memory Trick:
Nitrogen base: ___________
 __________, ___________ and ___________
 Have only _______ ring
 Cytosine is in _______ DNA and RNA
 Thymine is in ___________
 Uracil is in ____________
 Memory Trick:
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Structure of DNA:
DNA is composed of ________ ___________________ of
nucleotides.
The two strands are joined by __________________ which form
between complimentary nitrogen bases:
_____________________ (A-T or T-A)
They join with ____ hydrogen bonds
____________________ (C-G or G-C)
They join with ____ hydrogen bonds
When DNA is first made, it is just _______ _______________ of
nucleotides joined together.
Due to internal bonding, the DNA molecule then forms into a _________
__________ (twisted ladder).
Functions of DNA
a) ________________________________ by making all of the ___________ and
_____________________.
b) Contains all of the ___________________ necessary to make one complete organism of very
exact specifications
Ribonucleic Acid
RNA is made by _________.
It is not confined to the nucleus, it moves out of the nucleus ________________ of the cell.
It has _______ sugar instead of Deoxyribose.
It has no ___________, and uses _____________ instead.
It is ________________ and therefore, no helix is formed.
There are _____________ of RNA.
The function of RNA is to _______________________________________________________
DNA
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
RNA
Adenosine Triphosphate
ATP is also thought of as a _________________ as it has the same _____________ as a nucleotide.
The only difference is that it has ____________________________ instead of one.
This is the _________________ for the body.
Adenosine Triphosphate: Celllular Respiration
Our ______________ turn the energy of __________ into __________.
Why is it a good molecule to store energy? It takes a lot of __________ to put two phosphate
molecules together (both –’ve). So when you _______ ______________, a lot of energy is
_______________.