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Appendix 9 Potential Impacts of Extreme Weather on Services : A Summary (Source: Lancashire County Council Environment Directorate ) 1.Corporate functions 1.1 Finance The impacts of climate change have significant financial implications for local authorities, including: direct and indirect costs associated with extreme events potential changes to the costs and availability of insurance potential changes to the value of climate-vulnerable assets costs associated with adapting to a changing climate 1.2 Human resources The primary human resource issues for local authorities arising from projected climate changes are likely to be impacts on working conditions due to increases in average summer temperatures and the frequency of extreme heat events (heat waves). These may affect working efficiency and in extreme cases have health and safety implications. Measures may be needed to: Maintain council premises at appropriate internal temperatures to ensure safe, comfortable and efficient working conditions To ensure the health and safety of outside workers Other issues that may arise could include: Staffing implications from changing demand for services, including the capacity to respond to weather-related emergencies Possible changes to patterns of absenteeism from differing sickness, care responsibilities, or disruption of infrastructure Potential human resource responses to a changing climate could include staff awareness raising, education and training on issues such as: Minimising heat build up through changes to use of windows and ventilation Turning off heat-generating equipment when not in use Careful use of water Preparedness for weather-related emergencies For outside workers Training and protection to avoid increased UV exposure Changes to clothing and uniforms to cope with higher temperatures Ensure the availability of water to prevent dehydration and heat stress Changes to working hours or schedules to avoid periods of most intense heat Authorities able to demonstrate that they are well-adapted to a changing climate may enhance their reputation as good employers improving recruitment and retention rates One of the key aspects of being well-adapted to a changing climate is building the institutional capacity to respond to climate changes. Human resources considerations have a vital role in building institutional capacity. 1.3 Building management In developing a climate change adaptation strategy and action plan, climate impacts on premises should be considered. Three aspects of building management are considered here: the management of existing facilities; the retrofitting of existing premises with measures to improve climate resilience; and the specification, design and construction of new premises These 3 approaches have different cost implications and are likely to be relevant over different time periods. 1.4 Facilities management Facilities management offers opportunities for adaptation via operational changes, modified maintenance regimes and modest physical changes. Typically, assuming that there are no extreme vulnerabilities to current risks (as identified by way of an LCLIP, for instance), these may be the most cost-effective means of minimising climate risks in the short term, say over the next 5 to 10 years. More detailed guidance on facilities management. 1.5 Retrofitting The retrofitting of more substantial climate adaptation measures to existing premises is most cost-effective as an integral part of major maintenance or refurbishment programmes. However, there may be instances where risks are such that ad hoc retrofits need to be considered. In either case the aim should be that all major retrofits have design lifetimes appropriate to the investment involved, taking into account site specific issues and projected climate changes over the period for your locality. Typically this is likely to be in the range of 10 to 30 years. More detailed guidance on retrofitting. 1.6 New premises It is important that the specification, design, and construction of all new premises take account of the projected impacts of climate change over their planned lifetimes in the context of their geographical location and site-specific conditions. Typically this will require consideration of climate threats and opportunities for periods in excess of 30 years. Given that the uncertainties of climate change projections increase with time, one of the important design criteria is likely to be flexibility to cope with a range of future climate risks by, for instance, options for incremental upgrading of adaptation measures. More detailed guidance on new premises. 2. Economy 2.1 Enterprise support In 2007, 28% of businesses were disrupted by extreme weather (CMI, 2008). This is likely to increase as our climate continues to change. Enterprise Support staff can help SMEs think through the implications for their business and how to respond. UKCIP has developed a web-based resource for the business support community to assist them in providing advice to SMEs on climate change impacts and adaptation. It suggests how business advisors can: Make the business case for adaptation to an SME Decide where to target their support Raise awareness Use tools like the Adaptation Wizard to deliver advice 2.2 Regeneration Regeneration schemes should be designed to be resilient to projected climate changes over their design lifetimes. For new developments and major refurbishments this will typically be in excess of 30 years. Robust design will require consideration of appropriate climate change scenarios and an understanding of local and site-specific vulnerabilities established, for instance, by undertaking an LCLIP or similar vulnerability study. 3. Education and learning 3.1 New education buildings It is important that the specification, design, and construction of new educational buildings take account of the projected impacts of climate change over their planned lifetimes. Typically this will require consideration of climate threats and opportunities for periods in excess of 30 years. Given that the uncertainties of climate change projections increase with time, one of the important design criteria is likely to be flexibility to cope with a range of future climate risks. The specific climate risks that need to be considered will be related to: The geographical location of your authority The location of the site; and site-specific conditions Some of the key issues for school premises are: The need to provide a safe, healthy environment for learning The need to minimise climate-related disruptions to children's education The need for school buildings to be sustainable and easy to maintain over their design lifetime In addition to the general considerations for the design of climate-resilient premises, the most important specific factor to be considered for new school buildings is the vulnerability of children to excessive temperature. This is particularly the case for younger children and therefore is especially relevant to early-years and primary premises, but should also be considered in the provision of secondary schools and colleges. Currently, there are no statutorily defined maximum temperatures for schools. The aim should be to ensure that all areas of the school are capable of being maintained below appropriate temperature thresholds for the comfort and safety of pupils and students. 4. Emergency planning Local Resilience Forums (LRFs) already plan for severe weather, but climate change projections suggest that in future LRFs may need the capacity to respond to long term changes in the climate. The Emergency Planning Society, UKCIP and the Nottingham Declaration Partnership have prepared a briefing note Emergency Planning: Adapting to climate change. It presents some initial ideas on how emergency planning may need to respond. It draws on discussions at a practitioner workshop held in June 2009. The note discusses: Work that is currently being undertaken for the UK Adapting to Climate Change Programme that could in future provide valuable information to help emergency planners to better understand the growing risks from climate change. Sources of information on projected climate change and its consequences. A checklist of possible increased risks from severe weather that LRFs and other partners might increasingly need to consider. Ideas on what action LRFs could take now to prepare for increasingly severe weather. 5. Environment 5.1 Biodiversity Studies have identified a number of key direct impacts of climate change upon biodiversity including: Changes in the timings of seasonal events, leading to loss of synchrony between species and the availability of food, and other resources upon which they depend. Shifts in suitable climate conditions for individual species leading to change in abundance and range. Changes in the habitats which species occupy. Changes to the composition of plant and animal communities. Changes to habitats and ecosystems, such as altered water regimes, increased rates of decomposition in bogs and higher growth rates in forests. There is already evidence that species and ecosystems are being impacted by climate change, for instance: There has been a general trend towards spring and summer events, such as flowering and migration, taking place earlier in the year. Species are increasing and decreasing their abundance at sites in ways correlated with climate change. Many species are showing evidence of changes in their range. Those which undergo annual migration are responding particularly rapidly. Recent studies of the silver spotted skipper butterfly (Hesperia comma) have revealed a change of habitat, so that it now breeds in cooler, taller grasslands. There are also likely to be indirect impacts on biodiversity arising from responses to climate change in other sectors, such as: Changes in socio-economic drivers, working practices, policies and resource use. Changes to agriculture -- crop types, regional patterns of crop planting, the introduction of carbon management initiatives, biomass and bio-fuel crops could all have important implications for biodiversity Biodiversity in habitats associated with the Water and Wetlands EBS sector will be affected by water resource issues and catchments management. Increased water abstraction and fragmentation by artificial structures such as impoundments, flood control and hydro-electric schemes are potential threats to biodiversity. The creation of wetland habitats for water storage and flood control and the introduction of integrated catchments management may offer opportunities Threats to biodiversity within the Woodland and Forestry sector may result from increasing emphasis on carbon sequestration or production of biomass for renewable energy generation. Within Towns and Cities, negative impacts on biodiversity may result from the intensification of land use as a consequence of policies for increasing energy efficiency. Strategic planning for sustainable development may offer opportunities to incorporate biodiversity objectives; biodiversity can be included within new designs for building and open spaces and wetland habitats may be created as part of flood management and sustainable urban drainage systems. Within the Coasts and Seas sector, fisheries policy has a major impact on biodiversity. Policy in the coastal zone could have positive or negative effects, depending on whether habitats are created by managed realignment and the nature of coastal defences. Increased tourism development and renewable energy schemes also have the potential for negative impacts in some circumstances. Natural England has published a review of four specific Character Areas which suggests that significant changes are needed to the way England's landscapes are managed to allow them to adapt to climate change. 5.2 Landscape character Natural England's Character Area Climate Change study aimed to identify the local responses required to safeguard the natural environment and its enjoyment. It looked at four specific Character Areas in England that represented contrasting habitats and landscapes that are likely to be affected by climate change. The Character Areas were: Cumbria High Fells; Shropshire Hills; Dorset Downs and Camborne Chase; and The Broads. The study concluded that for all four areas: There will be changes in the plant and animal species that can survive in particular habitats; New species will move into the area as climatic conditions change, and some established species may be lost as their `climate space disappears; The timing of seasonal events such as flowering, breeding and migration will change There will be greater risk of soil erosion and flooding during intensive rainfall events Extreme weather events (drought, intense storms, and floods) are likely to occur more frequently, and habitats may not be able to recover from repeated disturbance. It recommended key practical steps to help build resilience including:- Improve the condition of existing habitats Restore lost and degraded habitats Extend existing habitats and create new areas for wildlife Increase the variety of microclimates in existing habitats and create a wide range of microclimates in new habitats Adopt sensitive farming methods - for example, by leaving buffer strips around fields rather than planting right up to the edge. 5.3 Environmental health Climate change is predicted to impact on public health. The main impacts identified by the Department of Health are summarised on the Health Improvement and Promotion page (link?) The Chartered Institute of Environmental Health has identified potential health impacts that are especially relevant to environmental health professionals: Increase in food poisoning due to increased survival of micro-organisms in warmer ambient conditions, in association with eating outdoors or storage in warmer conditions. Increase in water related diseases due to: warmer temperatures; more frequent heavy rainfall which can increase surface water torpidity and the number of bacteria and pathogens; slower river flow during periods of drought which may increase pathogen concentrations due to less dilution of effluent discharges; and increases in algal blooms. Increase in insects and vector born diseases, especially: midges; house dust mites; cat and dog fleas; stinging, biting and blood sucking insects; nuisance flies with the associated risk of food contamination. The health impacts of air pollution are likely to be mixed. Overall, warmer temperatures combined with an expected reduction in emissions of particles, oxides of nitrogen and sulphur dioxide are expected to decrease annual mean and winter levels of air pollution. On the other hand, increased summer temperatures, especially heat waves, are likely to be associated with increased air pollution and associated health problems. The Chartered Institute for Environmental Health (CIEH) suggest that environmental health professionals can take action to:- Input into long-term and emergency planning for floods and storms Co-ordinate health and hygiene advice before and after floods Investigate health risks of contaminated sport and outdoor play areas following flooding Provide advice on preparing for high winds, tailored to gust speeds Work with water undertakers to ensure that measures are in place to protect water quality in the event of river floods and flash floods during torrential storms Co-ordinate advice on responding to heat waves, especially for vulnerable groups (elderly, chronically sick, deprived groups including homeless people) Improve surveillance and reporting of climate related health impacts CIEH has proposed that further research is needed to examine the implications for food poisoning of climate change. 5.4 Grounds maintenance Projected climate changes are likely to change seasonal ground conditions with greater risks of flooding and water-logging in winter and drought conditions in summer. These may require: Improved drainage systems to alleviate greater flood risks and to ensure that playing fields and amenity areas are accessible throughout the year Water conservation measures and management to enable specialised areas, such as cricket pitches and grass tennis courts, to be maintained in periods of drought Resilient landscaping and planting schemes capable of tolerating both greater winter rainfall and summer drought conditions (with minimal need for watering) Reducing the extent of impermeable surface to lessen problems with surface water runoff Changes seasonal patterns of growing affecting the timing of maintenance regimes, including: Mowing regimes - extended thermal growing season may require mowing to be carried out throughout the year, whilst reduced rainfall may require less frequent summer mowing. Timing of activities such as pruning, weeding or leaf clearance may need to be varied Climate changes may affect prevalence of pest and diseases requiring different management responses Some alien species may become more pernicious Opportunities may include: Warmer winters and fewer frost days may offer opportunities to grow more tender plants, although these may be restricted by high winter rainfall Uses of mulching and ground cover planting to retain soil moisture Use of water harvesting measures to improve the use of scarce water resources 6. Fire and rescue Fire and Rescue Services (F&RS) already deal with the impacts of severe weather, but climate change projections suggest that in future F&RS may need the capacity to respond to increasingly frequent and severe weather events. A study for CLG in 2006 into the Effects of Climate Change on Fire and Rescue Services in the UK, concluded that:Climate change will lead to an increase in the frequency of hot summers and therefore to an increase in the number and severity of grassland and forest fires, requiring significant extra effort from Fire and Rescue Services. These summers are also predicted to be very dry, which may lead to water shortages. Water shortages during the summer will impact on Fire and Rescue Services in the UK in both training and fire fighting. It is also shown that increased winter rainfall and higher sea levels will lead to an increase in the frequency of flooding events during winter. Whilst measures are being taken to address this problem with improved flood defences, new pumping equipment and innovative appliance design, issues such as training, access to water rescue craft and helicopter support may need to be reviewed with this in mind. These events may also create an increased demand for short notice access to urban search and rescue equipment. F&RS buildings, equipment and staff may be vulnerable to the increasingly high temperatures, storms and severe floods that are expected to occur with climate change. As a key service during emergencies, F&RS need to ensure that they can continue to fully perform their functions during severe weather. 7. Health 7.1 Health trusts Severe weather events are expected to become more frequent and extreme as a result of climate change. This will place increased pressures on health services and operational resilience. The Department of Health's publication The Health impacts of climate change, suggests that climate change impacts such as increased heat waves and flooding could place increased pressure on health services. Health Trust buildings, equipment and staff may be vulnerable to the increasingly high temperatures, storms and severe floods that are expected to occur with climate change. As a key service during emergencies, health services need to ensure that they can continue to fully perform their functions during severe weather. 7.2 Health promotion The Department of Health, in its publication the Health Impact of Climate Change, has suggested that climate change may have the following health impacts:Heat wave-related health problems will become more frequent. The very old and young, chronically ill and poor are most susceptible River, coastal flooding and flash floods will potentially increase contamination of drinking water, increase water borne infections, and exposure to toxic pollutants, accompanied by psychological consequences, disruption, injuries and death. Later effects of flooding include stress and mental health problems. Infectious diseases. Cases of food poisoning and water borne diseases linked to warm weather are likely to increase. Vector born diseases (ticks and Lyme disease) may present local problems due to changes in the eco-system, but the increase in their overall impact is likely to be small. Sunburn and skin cancer are likely to increase because of greater exposure to warmer weather. Possible ancillary health benefits due to increased physical activity due to extended weather, but outcomes could be worse due to extreme heat. Extreme weather related events (natural disasters, droughts and hurricanes) leading to social disruption, injuries, death, disability, migration, homelessness and food shortages. Cold-related illnesses and deaths are likely to decline. Health improvement initiatives can:Make the public and carers aware of predicted heat waves and how to avoid heat wave related health problems. Raise public awareness of how to reduce exposure to skin cancer Advise residents, employers and services that are vulnerable to flooding how to reduce the health risks of floods. Promote vaccination programmes for infectious and vector borne diseases where appropriate 8. Housing 8.1 New Housing New housing should be designed sited and built to be resilient to projected climate changes over its design lifetime particularly with respect to: Flood risks - coastal, fluvial, ground and surface water flooding Changes to average and extreme temperatures Possible increases in frequency and severity of storms (high winds) Efficient management of water resources Subsidence and heave due to changing ground water conditions Typically this will require consideration of climate threats and opportunities for periods in excess of 30 years. Given that the uncertainties of climate change projections increase with time, one of the important design criteria is likely to be flexibility to cope with a range of future climate risks. General advice is available on climate risks to buildings. The specific climate risks that need to be considered for a given development will be related to: The geographical location of your authority The location of the site; and site-specific conditions General guidance is available on the specification, design, and construction of new premises. New housing developments should consider the use of SUDS (Sustainable Drainage Systems) techniques to handle surface water in order to minimise on- and off-site flood risks. 8.2 Housing renewal and refurbishment Renewal and refurbishment schemes offer the opportunity to improve the resilience of housing stock to climate change. Generally, it is more cost effective to fit adaptation measures to existing buildings during refurbishment projects than on an ad hoc basis, so it is worth considering changing climate risks over the planned lifetime of any refurbishment or renewal scheme at the design and specification stage. General advice is available on climate risks to buildings. Typically, the most important factors to be considered in relation to refurbishment projects are: Changing flood risks, coastal, fluvial, ground and surface water flooding, larger-scale renewal or refurbishment projects may offer opportunities to introduce SUDS approaches to managing surface water. Changes to average and extreme temperatures Efficient management of water resources Other factors that may need to be considered include: Possible increases in frequency and severity of storms (high winds) Changes to groundwater conditions leading to greater risks of subsidence and heave The specific climate risks that need to be considered for a given development will be related to: The geographical location of your authority The location of the site; and Site-specific conditions General guidance is available on the specification, design, and construction of new premises. Some of this may be relevant to refurbishment and renewal projects. 8.3 Housing repairs and maintenance Housing repairs and maintenance may offer some opportunities for improving the resilience of individual properties and the housing stock to climate changes, although these are likely to be limited by budgets and resources. Issues that could be considered: Are there any simple, cost-effective measures that could lessen flood risks or their impacts? For instance, it may be possible to fit basic seals and thresholds to doorways, or to reposition electrical outlets to reduce damage from minor flood events. Are there any simple, cost-effective measures that could lessen the impacts of extreme temperatures? For instance, fitting of blinds or shutters to reduce solar gain, or security measures to allow ground floor windows to be open at night. There may be opportunities to improve water use by replacing cisterns, taps or showers with more efficient models as part of repair and maintenance programmes. There may be opportunities to improve resilience to high winds when maintaining and repairing housing In order to take account of these opportunities it may be worth considering changing the specification of materials and procedures used for your maintenance and repair work. 8.4 Supported and sheltered housing Residents of supported and sheltered housing are likely to be especially vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and are likely to be less able to recover from ill effects. It is therefore particularly important that supported and sheltered housing is resilient to climate and weather events. The two most significant risks are likely to be from: Changes to average and extreme temperatures leading to difficulties in maintaining safe, comfortable internal conditions for residents and staff. Elderly people are particularly vulnerable to excessive temperatures, especially over prolonged periods and during the night. For instance, it is estimated that the August 2003 heat wave caused more than 35,000 excess deaths across Europe of which approximately 2,000 were in the UK. Likewise, elderly people are especially vulnerable to the impacts of flooding both in terms of direct physical risks and the health impacts of mental trauma. It is therefore important that these risks should be minimised through good design, construction and management of supported and sheltered housing. In addition to measures to minimise risks, there should also be contingency plans for when premises are unable to cope with extreme events, including: Evacuation procedures Provision of alternative accommodation Cool areas in schemes if impossible to maintain cool temperatures in all units Simple measures can also help to minimise risks in heat waves: Ensure that residents drink enough fluids, but avoid alcohol, caffeine and sugary drinks (assuming there are no health reasons to limit their intake of liquid) Encourage residents to stay indoors during the hottest period of the day Discourage opening of doors and windows in high external temperatures? Where security allows encourage residents to have windows open at night to cool their homes when temperatures are lower. There may also be opportunities arising from projected climate changes, such as: Warmer winters leading to fewer excess deaths and falls in snow and ice conditions. Milder winters will also reduce the energy demand for heating Warmer weather may also offer opportunities for more outside leisure and activities. Site design should include sheltered and shaded areas to enable residents to take these opportunities 9 Leisure and culture 9.1 Conservation and heritage Historic building and sites can be damaged by the impacts of climate change, including: flooding rainwater penetration storm damage threats to the viability of historic parks and gardens spread of pests and diseases which may damage gardens, buildings, fixtures and furnishings loss of historic sites due to coastal erosion increased fire risk English Heritage believe that "the measures necessary to adapt to and combat climatic instability will necessitate significant change in the historic environment, not all of which will conform to current thinking about heritage management" but also recognises that the work to respond to these challenges is "still in its infancy." (English Heritage Conservation Bulletin 57: Adapting to Climate Change.) Local authorities can encourage measures to improve the resilience of historic buildings and sites when acting as: Owners of historic buildings Conservation advisors Development control 9.2 Leisure centres In common with all developments, any new leisure centres should be designed, sited and built to be resilient to projected climate changes over their design lifetimes. Any refurbishment or major maintenance programmes should also aim to maximise resilience to climate changes and extreme weather events. See the building management and the risk to premises pages for general considerations of climate impacts on premises. Particular considerations for leisure centres may include: The need to maintain appropriate threshold temperatures for physical activities in higher average summer temperatures and heat extremes. Passive cooling should be considered as an alternative to air conditioning wherever practical. The need to shade any outdoor play areas from excessive sun and heat The use of drainage and permeable surfaces for outdoor play areas to minimise flood risks and to enable areas to recover quickly from intense rainfall. There may be opportunities for reducing energy demand for heating during milder winters. Provision of leisure services should take account of potential changes in the pattern of demand arising from climate changes, for instance, higher average temperatures and more hot weather may be expected to increase the demand for swimming facilities, including outdoor pools. 9.3 Museums and galleries In common with all developments, any new museums or galleries should be designed, sited and built to be resilient to projected climate changes over their design lifetimes. Any refurbishment or major maintenance programmes should also aim to maximise resilience to climate changes and extreme weather events. See the building management and the risk to premises pages for general considerations of climate impacts on premises. Particular considerations for museums and galleries may include: The need to maintain appropriate threshold temperatures in higher average summer temperatures and heat extremes for the comfort and safety of staff and users. Increasing use of heat generating IT equipment may be an issue. Passive cooling should be considered as an alternative to air conditioning wherever practical. The need to undertake a flood risk assessment in order to ensure that artworks and exhibits are displayed and stored to minimise the risk of flood damage. Similarly all valuable equipment should positioned or stored to minimise threats from flood risks. The need ensure suitable environmental conditions for the display and storage of artworks and exhibits can be maintained in a changing climate, particularly in damper winter conditions and hotter summers. 9.4 Parks and recreation Milder winters and hotter summers are likely to increase the demand for outdoor leisure activities and the use parks, recreation grounds and green spaces. It is therefore important that these should be well-adapted to the changing climate. Projected climate changes will have significant impacts on parks, recreation and green spaces. including: Seasonal changes to ground conditions with greater risks of flooding and waterlogging in winter and drought conditions in summer. Possible adaptation measures could include: Improved drainage systems to alleviate greater flood risks and to ensure that playing fields and amenity areas are accessible throughout the year Water conservation measures and management to enable specialised areas, such as cricket pitches and grass tennis courts, to be maintained in periods of drought Resilient landscaping and planting schemes capable of tolerating both greater winter rainfall and summer drought conditions (with minimal need for watering requirements) Reducing the extent of impermeable surface to lessen problems with surface water runoff Uses of mulching and ground cover planting to retain soil moisture. Difficulties maintaining traditional and heritage park and garden planting schemes, particularly: Summer bedding schemes Rose beds (and other shrubs) that may be stressed in drought conditions making them more vulnerable to pests and diseases Some native and ornamental trees species may not thrive in repeated, prolonged periods of summer drought. There may also be increased risks of damage from more intense storms particularly if the longer thermal growing season increases the risk that trees will still be in leaf at times of high winds. For instance, large, shallow rooted trees such as beech may no longer be viable in southern England. Adequate shaded areas should be provided to enable the use of parks and recreational areas in periods of high temperatures. These could include: Tree and shrub planting schemes Pergolas, arbours, etc Shaded pathways and shelters Roof overhangs on pavilions, etc. Warmer winters and fewer frost days may offer opportunities to grow more tender plants, although these may be restricted by higher winter rainfall and the continued risk of occasional severe frosts. Water harvesting and conservation measures should be introduced wherever possible to improve the use of scarce water resources All buildings in parks and recreational areas should be well adapted to climate change particularly in relation to: Flood risks High temperatures Risk of storm damage from high winds --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10. Planning and building control 10.1 Development control Planning and development control have important roles in ensuring that new developments are appropriately adapted to the potential impacts of climate change. Guidance on some of the main policy issues is provided under the advice on strategic planning. Development control can contribute to adaptation by ensuring that new developments conform to the relevant planning policies set out in the Local Development Framework and any Supplementary Planning Documents. Development control officers can also have an important role in advising developers on measures to improve the resilience of developments to climate change. 10.2 Landscape design Landscape design can help to ameliorate climate change impacts such as: Heat waves, especially in urban areas Intense precipitation (snow and rain) and consequent flooding Sea level rise Droughts The Landscape Institute recommends that landscape architects are involved early in design projects in order to incorporate adaptation measures such as: Green infrastructure and green roofs to help cool the environment, reduce surface run-off and flooding, and ease migration of species Sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) to reduce surface run-off and flooding and create new habitats Managed coastal realignment to alleviate the risks of sea level rise Appropriate Grey and recycling water systems to reduce water consumption and prepare for water shortages. 10.3 Strategic planning Planning strategy has an important role in ensuring that new developments are resilient and appropriately adapted to the potential impacts of climate change. The supplement to PPS1: Planning and Climate Change confirms that tackling climate change is key Government priority for the planning system and stresses that both mitigation and adaptation should be considered. It includes the following key planning objectives related to adapting the climate change: Secure new development and shape places that minimise vulnerability, and provide resilience, to climate change; and in ways that are consistent with social cohesion and inclusion; Conserve and enhance biodiversity, recognising that the distribution of habitats and species will be affected by climate change; Reflect the development needs and interests of communities and enable them to contribute effectively to tackling climate change; and Respond to the concerns of business and encourage competitiveness and technological innovation in mitigating and adapting to climate change. It states that when selecting land for development planning authorities should take into account: The ability to build and sustain socially cohesive communities with appropriate community infrastructure, having regard to the full range of local impacts that could arise as a result of likely changes to the climate; The effect of development on biodiversity and its capacity to adapt to likely changes in the climate; The contribution to be made from existing and new opportunities for open space and green infrastructure to urban cooling, sustainable drainage systems, and conserving and enhancing biodiversity; and Known physical and environmental constraints on the development of land such as sea level rises, flood risk and stability, and take a precautionary approach to increases in risk that could arise as a result of likely changes to the climate. PPS 25: Development and flood risk aims to ensure that flood risk is taken into account at all stages in the planning process. Given that projected changes to climate are likely to have significant influence on all sources of flood risks; most of the provisions of PPS 25 are relevant to climate change adaptation. In particular, PPS 25 requires the: Framing policies for the location of development which avoid flood risk to people and property where possible, and manage any residual risk, taking account of the impacts of climate change; and Safeguarding land from development that is required for current and future flood management. Local development frameworks can support climate change adaptation by including policies and Supplementary Planning Documents that require or encourage measures such as: Buildings to be sited and designed to minimise solar gain during summer and exploit opportunities for passive cooling Reducing flood risk to and from new development through location, layout and design, incorporating sustainable drainage systems (SUDS); Ensuring that drainage systems can cope with more intense rainfall Requiring permeable surfaces for pavements, driveways, footpaths, car parking areas and access roads Minimising water consumption in buildings by measures such as rainwater harvesting and the recycling, or reuse, of grey water The government is currently consulting on a new planning policy on development and coastal change. The intention is that the finalised policy will be published as a supplement to PPS25 and the current PPG20 Coastal Planning will be cancelled. The Sustainability Appraisal (SA) or Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of your LDF and any SPDs should include consideration of climate factors. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11. Police Police service buildings, equipment and staff may be vulnerable to the increasingly high temperatures, storms and severe floods that are expected to occur with climate change. As a key service during emergencies, police services need to ensure that they can continue to fully perform their functions during severe weather. 12. Social care Elderly and vulnerable people in care are particularly at risk from heat waves and flooding. Social care providers can reduce these impacts by: Adapting care homes and day centres to be better prepared for flood and heat waves Adapting care during severe weather Ensuring that vulnerable people are contacted and supported during severe weather 13. Tourism The probable impacts of climate change on UK tourism are ambiguous and uncertain. There are likely to be both opportunities and threats to tourism and hospitality businesses and possible changes to patterns of demand. Opportunities may include: Longer visitor seasons arising from warmer averages temperatures in spring and autumn, particularly for seaside and rural destinations Increased UK tourist numbers (residents and visitors) as alternative destinations, such as the Mediterranean and tropical resorts, become less desirable because of excessive temperatures and water constraints. Threats may include: Increased damage to tourism infrastructure and disruption of travel due to extreme weather events. Increased competition from Scandinavia and other northern destinations Within the UK, there may be some changes to visitor preferences such as favouring more northerly resorts for high summer holidays, or changes to the pattern of demand from urban to rural short breaks. Higher average costs of travel arising from both fuel prices and policies to mitigate emissions are likely to have impacts on the pattern of tourism demand both within the UK and internationally. Each local authority should consider both the direct and indirect threats and opportunities to tourism in its area based on: Its location and the importance of tourism and hospitality services to the local economy Threats and opportunities to its current tourism offering New opportunities that may arise from a changing climate. In order that the tourism and hospitality industries are able to take advantage of the opportunities and manage the threats effectively, they will need to ensure that: Tourism infrastructure, accommodation and visitor attractions are well adapted to projected climate change and resilient weather extremes. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14. Transport 14.1 Roads & paths: construction The list of potential impacts below is intended only as general guidance. A full climate risk assessment should be undertaken for any road or path construction scheme. 14.2 Flooding Ideally the routes of any new roads or paths should be chosen to avoid areas at risk from coastal, fluvial or ground water flooding. Where such areas are unavoidable, carriageways should be elevated to a height based on a flood risk assessment. New roads and paths should be designed to minimise risks of surface water flooding during periods of intense rainfall utilising sustainable drainage techniques to handle runoff. 14.3 Road surfaces High temperatures can destabilise and melt road surfaces resulting in costly damage and traffic disruption. Surfacing materials should be selected to minimise these risk through choice of: Viscosity of binding materials Chipping size Colour and reflectivity of surface In some case surface damage can be limited by shading by tree planting and hedges Road surfaces can also be damaged by scouring due to rapid surface water runoff during intensive rainfall 14.4 Ground instability Intensification of rainfall and the alternating wetting and drying of soils caused by the increased variations between winter and summer rainfall are likely to increase the risks of ground instability. Potential impacts may include: Damage to road and path fabrics from subsidence and heave Undermining of pavement by sub-surface flows Destabilising of embankments and cuttings by landslips Undermining and damage to the foundation of bridges and other structures 14.5 Storm damage Lighting, signage and other furniture should be designed to withstand risks from probable increases in wind intensity. 14.6 Other issues Construction schedules may be disrupted by increases in the frequency and intensity of winter rainfall. Higher summer temperatures and UV levels may raise Health and Safety issues for workforce. 14.7 Roads & paths: maintenance There are a range of potential risks to existing roads and pathways from climate change that should be considered when undertaking routine maintenance and refurbishment programmes. In the case of more extreme impacts there may be the need for more major capital programmes to alleviate risks. 14.8 Flooding Recent events have demonstrated that flooding is one of the most serious risks to the highways network and that poor management of drainage can exacerbate flood damage elsewhere. Projected climate changes are likely to significantly increase flood risks in future. Existing roads and paths may be vulnerable to increased risks from coastal, fluvial, ground and surface water flooding. Reducing vulnerability to the first three types of flooding is likely to require measures beyond the scope of normal highway maintenance, although there may be opportunities to reduce some risks by fairly minor changes to drainage systems, culverts, embankments, etc. Although reducing vulnerability to surface water flooding may sometimes require major works, there are often opportunities to reduce risks within the scope of routine maintenance. In particular, it is important to ensure that all existing drainage, culverts, etc. are well maintained and regularly cleared of obstructions and debris. 14.9 Maintenance schedules Climate changes may affect the capacity to fulfil maintenance schedules although the effects are likely to be ambiguous and variable. Milder winters are likely to reduce interruptions due to snow and freezing conditions, but increased winter rainfall is likely to increase disruption due to flooding and unfavourable ground conditions. The net effect of hotter, drier summers is unclear. There is likely to be an increase in the need for emergency repairs as a result of extreme weather damage of various kinds. 14.10 Workforce Reduction in outdoor workers productivity due to higher temperatures in summer. Potential health risks to workers from greater UV exposure and heat stress in extreme temperatures. 14.11 Transport planning The Local Transport Act 2008 placed a duty on local transport authorities to have regard to government policies and guidance on climate change adaptation. This requirement is reflected in the DfT's guidance on preparing Local Transport Plans. Climate change is expected to have a significant impact on local transport and the Local Transport Act 2008 placed a new duty on Local Transport Authorities (LTAs) to have regard to government policies and guidance on climate change adaptation. The Transport Planning Society, UKCIP and the Nottingham Declaration Partnership have prepared a briefing note Local Transport: Adapting to climate change. It presents some initial ideas about how LTAs might respond and draws on discussions at a practitioner workshop held in June 2009. The note discusses:Work that is currently being undertaken for the UK Adapting to Climate Change Programme and other research that could in future provide valuable information for LTAs. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15. Waste 15.1 Waste Disposal Amenity and recycling sites are often located in, or close to, residential areas and hence nuisance to residents is a particularly important issue. Higher average temperatures are likely to lead to: Increased nuisance from dust, odour and vermin, with potentially greater health risks from pathogens and bio aerosols. Increased odour caused by accelerated rates of decomposition of organic matter may be an important issue for sites located in residential areas. Reduction in outdoor workers productivity due to higher temperatures. Potential health risks to workers from greater UV exposure and heat stress in extreme temperatures. Possible increased risk of fire. Reduced risk of the disruption from snow and ice. Increased intensity of rainfall, especially in winter: Increased risk of flooding of site facilities, with potential for materials to be carried off-site by flood waters. Increased risk of disruption of transport infrastructure from intense rainfall and flooding leading to difficulties with deliveries to and from sites. Increased storminess: Possible increases in the frequency and intensity of higher winds may lead to more problems with windblown waste and debris. In extreme cases this may increase the risk to the public and workers from flying debris. Damage to site buildings - many older and less well-maintained sites are likely to have buildings that are highly vulnerable to storm damage. Changes to the cost and availability of insurance cover Sea level rise and storm surges: Potential flooding of site and disruption of transport infrastructure in coastal areas 15.2 Disposal and processing Processing and disposal sites are likely to be subject to a similar range of risks as suggested above for amenity sites and transfer stations, although they will not typically be in residential areas so that changes to the levels of nuisance may be of less significant. Below are suggested some of the additional risks associated with landfill and composting sites. The other broad approaches to disposal: mechanical and thermal processing tends not to have any specific issues beyond those for any waste processing facility. 15.3 Landfill Landfill sites operate over long periods and have potential environmental impacts for a significant time following their completion. Given that many aspects of their operation are sensitive to climate effects, they are highly vulnerable to climate changes. Higher average temperatures are likely to lead to: Altered decomposition rates. Effects are complex and variable but may include variations in the duration of the gassing phase, amount of gas generated and settlement rate. In combination with changes to the pattern of rainfall, may alter site hydrology leading to changes to leachate production and concentration. Reduced rainfall in summer May alter decomposition rates and site hydrology (see above) Reduce water availability for site management and dust suppression Increased intensity of rainfall, especially in winter: May alter decomposition rates and site hydrology (see above) Increase risk of flooding disrupting site operations, with possible off site pollution from materials being washed off site, changes to gas and leachate production and migration. Increased risk of erosion of bunds and capping layers Increased risks of slope instability Increased UV radiation due to reduced cloud cover:· May have an impact on the durability of exposed materials such as liners and plastic pipe work. Current landfill sites operate to higher standards than in the past, although these have not yet been reviewed specifically in relation to climate change. There are likely to be changes to the risks of environmental impacts from closed sites due to changes in decomposition rates, leachate concentration and migration patterns, erosion and site hydrology. 15.4 Biological processing Biological processing sites are likely to be subject to similar kinds of impacts to those for amenity and transfer sites. In addition, sites utilising windrow composting are likely to have: Changes to the rate of decomposition? Higher temperatures are likely to increase the rate, providing adequate moisture is available. Increased problems from vermin Increased risks of combustion of outer layers 15.5 Waste Collection Higher average temperatures are likely to lead to: Increased nuisance of odour and vermin from putresibles in mixed or segregated biodegradable, waste streams, with potentially greater health risks from pathogens and bio aerosols. Requirements for more frequent collections to mitigate these problems may conflict with use of alternative weekly collections to improve recycling rates. Reduction in outdoor workers productivity due to higher temperatures. Potential health risks to workers from greater UV exposure and heat stress in extreme temperatures. Possible increases in the risk of fire in waste awaiting collection. Reduced risk of the disruption of collections from snow and ice. Increased intensity of rainfall, especially in winter: Increased risk of disruption of collections and supporting infrastructure from intense rainfall and flooding Heavy rain and flooding may soak or disperse waste awaiting collection may be need for appropriate containers Increased storminess: Possible increases in the frequency and intensity of higher winds may lead to more problems with windblown waste and debris. In extreme cases this may increase the risk to the public and collection workers from flying debris. Sea level rise and storm surges: Potential disruption of collections and transport infrastructure by flooding in coastal areas.