Download STUDY GUIDE –Intro to Cell Biology

Chapter 1 Introduction
What is a heterotroph?
What does unicellular mean? Give an example
What does multicellular mean? Give examples
What is the difference between sexual and asexual reproduction?
What is homeostasis?
Why is maintaining homeostasis important for living things?
What is metabolism?
What is differentiation?
What is evolution?
CLASSIFICATION
What is taxonomy?
What is phylogeny?
What is a taxon?
What contributions did Aristotle and Carolus Linnaeus make to the science of taxonomy?
How did they group organisms?
What is binomial nomenclature?
Be able to write the 7 taxonomic levels in Linnaeus’s hierarchy in order from largest and
most inclusive to smallest and most exclusive.
What are the rules for writing a scientific name?
What is the scientific name for humans?
Which languages are used to give organisms scientific names?
How is evolutionary classification different from Linnaeus’s way of classifying?
What is cladistics?
What is a cladogram?
What are the original 5 Kingdoms?
What is a domain?
What characteristic is used to determine domains?
Which domain includes more than one kingdom?
Be able to name the 3 domains and tell which organisms they contain.
Be able to name the 6 Kingdoms and give examples of organisms in each.
Be able to give characteristics of organisms in the 6 kingdoms.
How is DNA used to help classify organisms?
What is a dichotomous key?
Be able to use a dichotomous key to identify and classify an organism.
Biochem
What particles are found in atoms? Give their location and electric charge.
Proton-positive charge, in nucleus
Neutron- neutral charge in nucleus
Electron- negative charge, in electron cloud
What is an ion?
Element with more or less electrons than the neutral element (ex. Na2+, Cl-)
Why is Carbon special?
Can bond up to 4 times, basis of all organic molecules, can form different types of bonds
(single, double triple)
What makes water important to cells?
Universal solvent, gives molecules their properties (hydrophobic, hydrophilic) used in
dehydration synthesis, hydrolysis, photosyn. And made in cell resp.
What are polar and non-polar molecules? Give examples.
Polar molecules have charge or slight charge (water, ions) and are thus hydrophilic. Nonpolar molecules have no charge and are hydrophobic
Which parts of a phospholipid molecule are polar? What parts are Non-polar?
Head groups= polar, tails= non polar
What is the difference between hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules and how do they act?
Hydrophobic molecules will group together to limit access to water. Hydrophilic molecules will
try to orient themselves to interact with water
What are Hydrogen bonds?
Hydrogen bonds are weak interactions between the slightly positive hydrogens of one molecule
and a slightly negative atoms of another molecule
What are reactants? What are products?
Reactants are what goes INTO the reaction (think individual ingredients when baking a cake ie.
Sugar, flour, eggs). Products are what is made AFTER the reaction (using previous example the
cake would be the product)
What happens in a HYDROLYSIS reaction?
Hydrolysis is the process which uses a molecule of water to break a polymer into individual
monomers again.
What happens in a DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS reaction?
In dehydration synthesis, 2 monomers are brought together to make a dimer or
polymer, this can only happen when water is removed.
What is a monomer?
Smallest sub unit or building block (ex= individual lego)
What is a polymer?
Polymers are large molecules made of many monomers (ex= huge lego house)
What is a catalyst?
(enzymes) a catalyst is used to speed up chemical reactions and lower the activation energy so a
reaction can happen at an organism’s regular temperature
How do catalysts work?
See Above
What molecules act as catalysts in living things?
enzymes
What is an active site?
The area on an enzyme where a substrate will bind
What is a substrate?
The molecule an enzyme will do work on (break apart if enzyme is performing hydrolysis or build
together id enzyme is performing dehydration)
An enzyme-substrate complex?
The middle stage when the substrate is bound to the enzyme before the enzyme performs its
action on the substrate
What is denaturing?
The process of breaking hydrogen bonds or interfering with the interactions holding a protein
together. The denatured protein will lose its function if denatured too far
Which 4 MACROMOLECULES are important to living things?
Carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
What subunits are used to make these? Be able to ID these in a picture and give examples.
Carbs-monosaccharide (glucose, fructose etc. both are in rings)
Lipids- fatty acids and glycerol
Proteins- Aminio acids (central carbon with H bond, amino group, carboxyl group, R group)
Nucleic Acids- nucleotides (sugar, phosphate group and nitrogen base)
Explain the difference between mono and polysaccharides.
Mono-one, used as ready to use energy
Poly-many, used as energy storage (glycogen and starch) or as structure (cellulose and chitin)
What are some of the FUNCTIONS of:
Proteins:
storage, defense, catalysts, structure, messengers, transport etc
Carbohydrates:
Energy, energy storage, structure
Lipids:
Long term energy storage, water proofing, cell membrane, chemical messengers
Nucleic acids:
Carry genetic code!
Which macromolecules are important in making cell membranes? Carry information?
Lipids, NA
Help in transport? etc.
Proteins
Cell Structure and Function
CELL THEORY:
What are the three parts of the cell theory?
All cells come from pre-existing cells
All living things are made of cells
Cells are the fundamental unit of life
How are molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms
related? Be able to put them in to order from least to most complex.
Molecules-Organelles-cells-tissues-organs-organ systems- organisms
Organelles are made from organic macromolecules, a system of organelles working together form
a cell. Cells performing the same function are a tissue. Tissues performing the same function
are organs. Many organs performing different functions in a concerted effort make a living
organism
How is a cell’s specialized shape related to its specialized function?
Intestinal cells have highly folded areas to increase surface area to increase absorption rates of
vitamins and other substances. Plant cells have brick like structure with cell wall to use a rigid
support.
What is a glycoprotein?
Glycoproteins are proteins embedded in the cell membrane, which have a carbohydrate attached.
They are used for cell recognition and signaling between cells.
What is a phospholipid?
A lipid with a polar head group and two hydrophobic tails. Used in cell membranes and
membrane bound organelles like chloroplasts, mitochondria.
What is a microtubule? What is a microfilament?
Both are made of proteins and are used in the cytoskeleton.
Which organelles are made of microtubules?
Cytoskeleton and centrioles
Which organelles have a double membrane and their own DNA?
Mitochondria have their own DNA, all other organelles share the common DNA of the cell
What are cell membranes made out of?
Phopholipid bilayer along with proteins and carbohydrates embedded
What is a lipid bilayer?
Lipid bilayers are two layers of phospholipids aligned so the hydrophobic tails are in the middle
and polar heads face the inside and outside of the cell. Used to separate the cell from the
outside environment
How are peripheral and integral proteins different?
Peripheral proteins are stuck on one side of the lipid bilayer or the other (inside or outside
completely). Integral proteins are incorporated throughout the cell membrane (stuck in the
middle and stick out on either or both ends)
How do the non-polar hydrophobic tails/polar hydrophilic heads in a phopholipid play a role in cell
membrane formation?
See Above
How are chromatin and chromosomes different?
Chromosomes are a single strand of DNA no matter how long or short. Chromatin refers to the
completely wound up structure of the DNA and proteins which the DNA is wound around.
What is a prokaryote?
A prokaryote has no nucleus, single celled, less complex, lacks mitochondria
What is a eukaryote?
Eukaryote has a nucleus, mitochondria, more complex and large cells. Can be multicellular.
Contains membrane bound organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts.
How are prokaryotes and eukaryotes different?
See descriptions above
What organelles are found only in plants?
Large vacuoles, chloroplasts, cell walls (found in plants and bacteria)
Which organelles are found only in animals?
Small vacuoles, centrioles, cillia
How are bacterial and plant cell walls different?
Don’t worry about this question
How are cilia and flagella different?
Cillia are many short hair like projections used for movement. Flagella are long whip like
structures used for movement
CELL PARTS: Be able to name, give a function, tell what it’s made of, and identify in a
picture:
cell (plasma) membrane
seperates cell from environment, used to transport things in and out of cell. Lipids
nucleus
contains DNA, made of Nucleic acids
nuclear (membrane) envelope
keeps DNA in nucleus, regulates what enters and exits nucleus. Made of lipids and proteins
(pores)
nucleolus
Site of ribosome production. Made of RNA and proteins
nuclear pores
pores in nuclear envelope where substances enter and leave nucleus. Made of proteins
centrioles
used in cell reproduction to separate and transport cell materials. Made of microtubules
mitochondrion
makes ATP. Made of lipids, makes nucleotides (ATP)
rough endoplasmic reticulum
Network of tubes/vesicles which create proteins. Made of lipids and RNA(ribosomes)
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
network of tubes/vesicles which create lipids. Made of lipids
Golgi (body) apparatus
Packages and modifies products and finally ships them to their finally destination. Made of
lipids
ribosomes
make proteins. Made of protein and RNA
chloroplast
site of photosynthesis, make glucose. Made of lipids, creates glucose
cell wall
gives plant cells the rigid shape and support. Made of cellulose
vacuole
used to store food and water. Made of lipids, stores carbs and water
cytoplasm
gelly like substance all organelles are found in in the cell. Contains dissolved amino acids and
monomers of macromolecules
lysosomes
Contain digestive enzymes used to break down waste and old organelles of the cell. Enzymes
and proteins
cytoskeleton
support structure for the cell. Made of proteins
Transport
Be able to describe how the different kinds of transport listed below work:
Passive Transport:
Requires NO energy!!!!!
DIFFUSION
flow of molecules from high concentration to low. THROUGH MEMBRANE
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Flow of molecules from high to low concentration with assistance from transport protein
or protein channel THROUGH PROTEIN
OSMOSIS
Flow of water from high to low, THROUGH MEMBRANE
Actice Transport:
Transport from low to high concentration, REQUIRES ENERGY (ATP)!!!
Na+-K+ PUMP
Example of protein pump
ENDOCYTOSIS (PHAGOCYTOSIS)
Cell eating, think amoebas (the blob), white blood cells, THROUGH MEMBRANE
ENDOCYTOSIS (PINOCYTOSIS)
Cell drinking, THROUGH MEMBRANE
EXOCYTOSIS
Cell gets rid of waste through MEMBRANE
What is a solute?
Any molecule dissolved in a solvent
What is a solvent?
Used dissolve solutes to make solution
What is concentration?
Amount of solute in a solution
What is a concentration gradient?
The amount of solute in a solution compared to an adajecent(neighboring) locaiton
Which direction do molecules naturally move?
High ---- Low
What is the difference between ACTIVE and PASSIVE transport?
Active= use energy (ATP); Passive= No energy required
Which ORGANELLE makes the energy for active transport?
energy?
Mitochondria, ATP (created in cellular respiration)
Which MOLECULE provides this
What is a carrier protein?
Protein used in facilitated transport, physically changes when molecule binds, will open up
to the other side of the gradient allowing passage of molecules
What are ion channels?
Channels which will allow charged particles (ions) to flow according to their concentrations
What is a pump?
Uses energy to pump molecules against their gradient
Which kinds of transport are active?
Pumps, endo and exocytosis
Which kinds of transport are passive?
Simple diffusion, osmosis and facilitated transport
Which kinds of transport use membrane proteins to help molecules across?
SEE ABOVE
Which kind of transport do white blood cells use when they engulf and destroy bacteria?
Endocytosis
What kind of transport do Golgi bodies use to transport substances out of cells?
Exocytosis
Be able to explain:
HYPOTONIC:
HIGHER water concentration outside the cell than inside. Water will flow INTO the cell.
HYPERTONIC:
LOWER water concentration outside the cell than inside. Water will OUT of the cell.
ISOTONIC:
Water concentration EQUAL on both sides of cell membrane, NO NET FLOW
Be able to identify these 3 kinds of solutions using a diagram.
Dots = Water molecules
HYPO
ISO
HYPER
What happens to animal and plant cells placed in each kind of solution above?
Hypo- cells grow until burst, ISO- cell shape remains same, HYPER- cells shrink
What is plasmolysis?
Cell shrink from being placed in hypertonic environment (think elodea lab)
Cytolysis?
Cells burst from being placed in hypotonic environment
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
What is an autotroph? Give examples:
Organism that can create it’s own energy storage molecule and break it down (producer).
PLANTS FUNGI
What is a Heterotroph? Give examples.
Consumer, must consume another organism to gain energy storage molecules to break into it’s
own energy
Which molecule is used by living things to store and transfer energy?
GLUCOSE
What are the parts of an ATP molecule?
A = ________Nitrogen base_________
B= ________Sugar_________
C = _________Phosphate groups (3)________
How are ATP and glucose used by cells?
Glucose is used as a storage molecule and is later broken down through cellular respiration to
create ATP
How do animal cells store glucose for later?
glycogen
Be able to write the chemical equation for photosynthesis:
6H20 + 6CO2 + Light Energy - C6H1206 + 602
What is the main pigment used by green plants to absorb energy?
Chlorophyll
Which wavelengths of light are reflected?
Green (blue-violet and red absorbed)
How are carotenoid pigments different from chlorophyll?
Absorb different wavelengths, reflect orange/yellow
Why do plants have these other pigments besides chlorophyll?
To maximize the amount of light wavelengths that can be absorbed and used to create glucose
Why do plants look green? Lots of chloroplasts, which have lots of chlorophyll which is green
Label the parts of a chloroplast and tell where the reactions for photosynthesis happen.
A= _______thylakoid___________
B= _____stroma___________
C= ______granum__________
D= ______thylakoid membrane____________
E= _______cytoplasm_______
Place where light dependent reactions happen = _thylakoid membrane
Place where Calvin cycle happens = __stroma
What is NADP+ ? What does it do?
“Uncharged” energy carrying molecule (uncharged battery) Gets charged by light dependent
reactions and ultimately uses its energy when NADPH to create glucose
Where does the H that ends up in NADPH ultimately come from?
H+ pump used to create ATP being pumped out of the thylakoid
Be able to describe the two sets of reactions involved in photosynthesis
Light-dependent reactions: Light is absorbed by photosystem 2. Photons excite electrons
in the reaction center which then are charged and kicked up to the electron transport chain.
These energized electrons move through the ETC, as they do H+ pumps into the thylakoid
membrane AGAINST the gradient (low to high). This newly formed gradient is then used to
make ATP by the ATP synthase which uses the flow of H+ out of the thylakoid to create ATP
all directly from Photosystem 2. The 2e- move to Photosystem 1 to be energized again and are
again kicked up to the next ETC. After flowing through this ETC, the 2e- move out into the
stroma and form NADPH from a NADP+ molecule and free floating H+. While all of this
happens, the electrons from photosystem 2 beed tobe replaced, this happens when water is split
into 2e- and goes into the PSII, while 2H+ stay in the thylakoid membrane and ½ O2 diffuse
out.
Calvin cycle:
The NADPH and ATP made from light dependent reactions move into the stroma. From
here, CO2 is added to the Calvin cycle, and along with ATP and NADPH, glucose is created.
Where are they located and what happens in each?
See above
Be able to identify the molecules that participate in the light-dependent reactions and tell what
they do.
See above
Why does Photosystem II come before Photosystem I in the light-dependent reactions?
PSI was discovered first, but once PSII was discovered, they kept the numbering system even
though out of order.
Which reactions in photosynthesis require light?
Light dependent (formation of NADPH and ATP)
Which do not?
Calvin cycle (formation of glucose)
How and where are ATP and NADPH made?
See above
What happens to water during the light-reaction?
What are the reactants?
Water
What are the products?
2e-, 2H+, ½ O2
Which molecule is given off as a waste gas?
oxygen
Which molecules produced by the light-dependent reaction are used during the Calvin
cycle?
NADPH and ATP
What happens during the Calvin cycle?
What are the reactants?
NADPH ATP and CO2
What are the products?
Glucose, NADP+ and ADP
Where does the carbon and oxygen in glucose ultimately come from?
C02
Where does the hydrogen in glucose ultimately come from?
NADPH
Which factors affect the rate of photosynthesis and how?
Light intensity, water, CO2
RESPIRATION
Be able to label parts in a mitochondrion and tell where the different reactions happen.
See Notes, Glycolysis and fermentation = cytosol
Kreb’s= mitochondrial matrix
ETC= Inner membrane (cristae)
What is the chemical formula for cellular respiration?
C6H12O6 + 602  6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
How does this equation compare to the equation for photosynthesis?
Inverse of photosynthesis, using the products of photosynthesis to make the reactants
Be able to describe
glycolysis, Process in the cytosol that converts glucose into 2 molecules of Pyruvate. Creates 2
ATP and 2 NADH
alcoholic fermentation, happens in cytosol, used to regenerate NAD+, takes pyruvate made in
glycolysis and creates Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) , CO2 and NAD+
lactic acid fermentation, happens in cytosol, used to regenerate NAD+, takes pyruvate made in
glycolysis and creates lactate and NAD+
Krebs cycle, Pyruvate enters the matrix(mitochondria). Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA,
this step generates 1 NADH. Acetyl CoA enters the Kreb’s cycle. Through the cycle, 3 NADH, 1
FADH2 and 1 ATP are created. Since 2 pyruvate are created, this cycle happens again. The NADH
and FADH2 produced here move to the ETC
If given a diagram of a pathway, you should be able to fill in reactants and products and tell
where does it go next?
Be able to tell which stages require oxygen and which DON’T.
Kreb’s and ETC require oxygen. Fermentation requires a environment with NO oxygen. Glycolysis can
happen with or without oxygen, AKA Glycolysis don’t care, honey badger style….
Which molecule forms when glucose is broken in half?
2 Pyruvate
What does anaerobic mean?
Environment with NO oxygen
What does aerobic mean?
Environment WITH oxygen
What happens to pyruvic acid if there is no oxygen?
Fermentation, Alcoholic or Lactic Acid depending on the organism
What are the two kinds of fermentation?
See above
Be able to give examples where each of these is used.
Lactic acid fermentation- in human muscle cells
Alcoholic fermentation- in yeast