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Chapter 12: Cell Cycle The function of mitosis o What does it do?: produces somatic cells How many, and what types of cells are produced? o 2 daughter cells from 1 parent cell Somatic cells vs. gametes o Where are they found?: somatic cells in the body, gametes in sex organs o How do they differ in chromosome number?: somatic: 46, gametes: 23 Chromatids vs. chromosomes o How do they differ?: 2 chromatids make up 1 chromosome o When does a chromatid become a chromosome?: as soon as the chromatids divide, they’re chromosomes Centromere vs. centrosome o Where are they found?: centromere is the center connection piece of a chromosome (1 per chromosome); centrosomes are the small parts of cells where microtubules originate during mitosis Mitosis vs. Cytokinesis o How do they differ?: mitosis is division of genetic material, cytokinesis is division of cell o Where do they take place?: in the cell Sister chromatids vs. nonsister chromatids o How do they differ?: sister chromatids are attached to make up a chromosome; nonsister chromatids aren’t connected phases of cell cycle o G0 is a no growth stage; G1 and G2 are growth stages, S (synthesis) stage is when replication of chromosomes occurs benign vs. malignant tumors o How do they differ?: benign tumors are cancerous but are confined to one area; malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues kinetochore vs. aster o Where are they found and what do they do?: the kinetochore is the place where spindle fibers attach during division to pull the chromosomes apart, kinetochores are found in the cell during mitosis; the aster forms around the centrosome during mitosis, the asters move to opposite ends of the cell and help prepare for mitotic spindle formation Chapter 13: Meiosis Function of meiosis o What does it do?: produces gametes through 2 consecutive cell divisions o How many/what types of cells are produced?: 4 daughter cells are produced that are all gametes (sperm or eggs) Asexual vs. sexual reproduction o How do they differ in their end product?: sexual reproduction leads to more diverse offspring Animal vs. plant life cycles o How do the stages differ in terms of being haploid/diploid, single cell/multicellular?: gametes are haploid, somatic cells are diploid Autosomes vs. sex chromosomes o How many are found in a somatic cell?: 44 autosomes, 2 sex chromosomes o How many are found in a gamete?: 22 autosomes, 1 sex chromosome Diploid vs. haploid o diploid (2n) has 2 sets of chromosomes, haploid (1n) has 1 set of chromosomes Homologous vs. recombinant chromosomes o How do they differ?: homologous chromosomes orient at the metaphase plate, they line up next to each other at the metaphase plate during mitosis; recombinant chromosomes are produced during crossing over possible combinations of daughter cells o ex. 2n=8, so n=4. Formula for calculating possible combinations is 2n. So, 24=2 x 2 x 2 x 2, or 16 Crossing over, locus, chiasmata, synapsis o crossing over: occurs during prophase of meiosis, homologous chromosomes share information o locus: specific location of a gene on a chromosome o chiasmata: junction between two homologous chromosomes o synapsis: pairing of homologous chromosomes during meiosis Chapter 14: Mendel and the Gene Idea P vs. F1 vs. F2 generations o P= true-breeding parent generation, F1=first familial (offspring) generation, F2=second set of offspring from F1 mating Dominant vs. recessive o What does it mean to be either?: one dominant allele causes the trait to be expressed; 2 recessive alleles must be present for a recessive trait to be expressed genes vs. alleles o What are they and how do they differ?: alleles are alternative versions of genes homozygous vs. heterozygous o What does it mean to be either in terms of having dominant or recessive alleles?: homozygous means that there are 2 dominant or 2 recessive alleles for a trait (ex. for the trait of blue eyes, which is a recessive trait, homozygous dominant is BB and homozygous recessive is bb); heterozygous means that one of each allele is present (Bb) o Can you use a simple Punnett square to determine the outcome?: put one parent across the top, the other across the side, and fill in the blanks phenotype vs. genotype o phenotype is visible or observable characteristics or traits o genotypes is actual genetic makeup monohybrid vs. dihybrid crosses o How do they differ in the number of characters and traits?: monohybrid crosses examine 1 (2 characters) trait, dihybrid crosses examine 2 traits (4 characters) complete dominance vs. incomplete dominance o How do they differ in F1 phenotypes? o How do they differ in F2 phenotypes? 3:1 vs. 1:2:1 vs 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratios o How do they differ in the types of hybrid crosses and the types of dominance?: 3:1 ratios occur from a Aa Aa cross with complete dominance. 1:2:1 ratios occur from Aa Aa crosses with incomplete dominance. 9:3:3:1 ratios come from dihybrid crosses. Testcross, pleiotropy, epistasis o What are they/what do they do? testcross: used to determine genotype of an individual with a dominant phenotype by crossing with a known genotype (recessive phenotype) pleiotropy: a single gene influences multiple phenotypic traits epistasis: one gene controls the expression of another carriers o How do carriers influence transmission of recessive disorders?: carriers are heterozygous for a trait (one dominant allele, one recessive allele) and thus are capable of passing on a disorder if they mate with someone with a heterozygous or homozygous recessive genotype. Chapter 15 Wild type vs. mutant type phenotype o How do they differ? wild type is “normal”, mutant type has a new trait not seen in the wild type Linked genes vs. sex-linked genes o How do they differ?, where are they found, how are they passed on? linked genes are located on the same chromosome and tend to be inherited together; sex-linked genes are any genes on sex chromosomes Parental type offspring vs. recombinant type offspring o How do they differ in phenotype and genotype?: recombinant offspring have a different phenotype and genotype than parents Recombination frequencies and linkage maps o check book for examples of recombination frequencies and linkage maps o formula for recombination frequency: (number of recombinants/total number of offspring)x100 Frequency of crossing over? o What effect does gene location have on crossing over and the level of recombination frequency?: the likelihood of crossing over is higher if genes are farther apart Barr body o inactive X chromosome in a female cell nondisjunction o What happens, where does it occur, and what results? failure of homologous chromosome pairs to separate during cell division, or failure of sister chromatids to separate; results in aneuploidy (abnormal amount of chromosomes) Chapter 22: A Darwinian View of Life Evolution vs. descent with modification o How can you define each?: evolution is change of a population of organisms from one generation to the next; descent with modification is Darwin’s personal view before “evolution” word was used o How does microevolution differ from descent with modification?: microevolution occurs on a smaller scale (allele frequencies in populations) catastrophism vs. uniformitarianism o How do they differ?: catastrophism was advocated by Cuvier and is the idea that some sudden catastrophic event wiped out all organisms in the area; uniformitarianism was advocated by Hutton and Lyell says that scientific processes are constant over time and changes in the earth surface result from slow and continuous actions natural selection vs. artificial selection o How do they differ?: natural selection occurs by independent mate selection while artificial selection is choosing of particular traits to breed together o What’s the relationship between natural selection and the environment? natural selection brings about a match between an organism and their environment; over time natural selection can increase the match between an organism and their environment theory vs. hypothesis o a theory is more comprehensive than a hypothesis Chapter 23 gene pool vs. gene flow o How do they differ?: a gene pool is all of the genes in a population at any given time; gene flow results from movement of fertile individuals or gametes relative fitness o What is it?: the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to other individuals mutation vs. sexual recombination vs. genetic drift o What are they and how important are they in altering allele frequencies? mutation: source of new alleles sexual recombination: most important in producing genetic differences to make adaptations possible genetic drift: describes how alleles fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next in SMALL populations o What do p and q represent? o