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Psychological Theories of
Development Underlying the
Counseling Process
Liv Margarete Lassen 2006
Counselling /Liv Margarete Lassen / 2006
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Theory
” Theory is when one understands everything
and yet nothing seems to fit.
Practice is when all fits well no one knows
why.
In this room theory and practice are united
and nothing fits and no one knows why.”
Counselling /Liv Margarete Lassen / 2006
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4 Major Theoretical Ideologies
Behaviorism - Psychodynamic - Humanistic - System
Eclectic Theory
Problem solving models
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Hypothesis, theory and models
Theory ”A cluster of hypothses with a clear
the connection between them. ”
Hypothesis ”Explains, describes or interpret
possible connections which one is uncertain
about, but willing to investigate.”
Model ”A representation of an idea or
hypothesis.” (simplified version)
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PRACTICE
P3
Ethical
background
Values
Theory of
Practice
Experiences
Based on
knowledge
P2
Teoretical-base
Practicalexperiences
P1
Action/
behavior
Counselling /Liv Margarete Lassen / 2006
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HISTORICAL LINE
1900
Pavlov
1849/1900
Rubenstein
1889
Luria
1902
Vygotsky
1896
1951
Skinner
1904
Berne
1910
Leontjev
1903
FAMILIETHEORY
Freud
1858
Perls
1893
Adler
1870
Frankl
1909
Rogers
1902
Glasser
1928
Satir
1921
Ellis
1930
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Bateson
1952
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Central Theoretical Groups
 Psychoanalysis: Focus on the inner processes; behavior seen as a
consequence of inner energy based on feelings.
 Humanistic: Focus on the whole identity; takes into account feelings,
thoughts and behavior.
 Behavioristic: Focus on observable behavior – measurable
 Systemic:
Focus on how systems affect individual’s growth and
behavior. Looks at rolls, binds, rules and myths. Dysfunctional behavior is
perceived as a symptom for a dysfunctional system.
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Polarity
 Psychodynamic
Feelings/emotions
Focus - past
Insight important
Problem - a symptom
Unconscious factors are
important
 Behaviorism
Behavior (+/- cognition)
Focus present
Insight – not essential
Problem real: either not
learned behavior or
learned inadequate
behavior
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Psychodynamic
Pschoanalysis
Freud (1856)
Vienna
Medical background
 Three levels of psychological functioning
superego - ego - id
 Importance to attain a balance of the levels
 Drive - Libido
Survival instincts:
Love, sex death and aggression
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Psychosocial stages
Orale 0-1
Anale 1-3
Fallic/Ødipal 3-6
Latent 7-13
Genital 12 15
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Additional psychoanalytic views…...
 Adler (1870) Medical background
Power and feelings of inferiority
 Jung (1870) Swiss Psychiatrist
Archetypes – Collective consciousness, myths dreams,
fairy tales, religion.
 Reich (1897) Austrian doctor
Vegetotherapi
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Neofreudian theories:
Ego- psychology
 Erikson (1902) Tyskland
8 stages
Importance of play
Imporatnce of social interaction
 Anna Freud (1895)
Importance of defence mechanisms
 Berne (1910) Canada
Transactional analysis: Parent - Adult - Child
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Natural developmental stages
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Basic trust vs mistrust (0-1år)
Autonomy v.s. Shame/ doubt (2-3år)
Initiative v.s. Guilt (4-7 år)
Industry v.s. inferiority (6-12-13 år)
Identity vs. Role confusion (13-19 år)
Intimacy v.s. isolation (20-30år)
Generativity vs stagnation (30 år – old age )
Ego Integrity vs despair (old age)
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Psychodynamic
Problem/ difficulty
Help Process
Action Strategies
Imbalance between the dynamic
parts of the psyche /
Seen with respect to psychososial
stages
Identify problems through:
Play
Art
Tests
Associations
Talking, etc.
Strategies: Make the unconscious
Conscioud through ”talking cure”
Play therapy, art therapy, etc.
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Behavioristic theory
Classic conditioning (Pavlov, Watson)
Explains behavior as a learned response
Unconditioned st.
Reflecs
Food
Neutral stimulus
R
Condtioned st.
R
Bell
Salivation
Bell
Salivation
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Operant condtioning(Skinner)
Sd
o
Sr
Stimulus
descriminat
Behavoir
Stimulus
Reinforcer
Situation
Thoughts
Psysical reactions
Situations
Thoughts
Physical reactions
An analysis of the connection between
situasjon, behavior and reactions.
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Conditioning
Present
+ stimulus
Praise
Rewards
Positive
reinforcement
-Stimuli
Unpleasant
consequence
or task
Punishment
Withhold
Extinction
Negative
reinforcement
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Sosial learning theory
Bandura & Walters
• Modeling
Tharp og Wetzl
Importance of social aspects
• Goal
To learn new behavioral response to old patterns
Includes cognition and feeling
• Cognitive theory
Meichenbaum-Piaget-Luria
Neurolinguistisk Programming Bandler og Grinder
Cognitive
Systematic shaping - Nyborg
- behavioral
Self-management – self-efficacy
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Sivert og Sveaas modell 1986
”Lage – little world”
Describe Problem:
By kind. Personell/ teacher
By parents foreldrene
By the child/ youth
Problem describes as:
What the child/ youth does
In his situation
Child behavior is analyzed with regards to:
Desired
behavior
Non desired
behavior
Assessment
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Assessment
Child/ youths behavior
With regards to the
situational stimuli in
the environment
Child/ youth’s individual
Characteristics as:
• competance
• learned behavior
• cognitve style
• resources
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Goal definition
What we want the child/ youth to do:
Do more of
Do less of
Learn new
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Action Plan
What do we do?
Strategy for building new learning skills
Strategy for increasing desired behavior
Strategy for reducing unwanted behavior
Strategu for preventing
Action plan carried out together with
parents and other involved persons
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Evaluation
Has a change occured?
Has this helped the child or youth
?
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Condtional counseling paradigms and models
(Sten Rønneberg)
Stimuli
Spiritual factors
Identity
Values
Competanse
Alternative conditioning
Behavior
Consequences
Possible other variables
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BEHAVIORISTIC
Problem definition
Process
Action plan
Unlearned or faulty learned behavior
Analysis of S-O-R dimentions with
regards to present behavior
Assess through systematic observation
and interview to identify:
S–d
O - atferd
S - reinforcer
Identify - models
Build out desired behavior by reinforcemen
Shape up unlearned behavior.
Reduce unwanted behavior by extinction
Introduce positive models
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HUMANISTIC– The third way
Rogers - Maslow - Glasser - Nissen
1. Humanistic
2. Eupsychic
3. Conscious & unconscious
4. Drive- ”growth hypothesis”
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Pschological deveopment
Basic personal needs central for selfdevelopment
(Etter Kreck & Crutchfield 1969:499)
Maslow’ s Hierarchy of Needs
Selv-actualization
Self esteem
Belonging
Safety
Physiological
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Symbolic interaction
G. Mead 1934
Evaluation &
perception
RV
Cognition/
Feelings
Evaluation &
perception
S
V
RS
”I mirrow myself in the other’s reaction to me”
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HUMANISTIC
Problem definition
Helping Process
Action plan
• Unmet basic needs that use energy
• Lost contact with own feelings,
needs or self.
• Analyze situation by
interviewing child, youth, adults
• Focus - Here and now
• Conscerned with: Resources
Needs
Plan: Counseling relationship should
meet the person’s basic needs so
that growth is ensured.
Teach child/ parent/ teacher to
formulate and meet own needs.
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System theories - Comunication
Bateson 1952 California -double bind
 Family therapy
Conjoint - Virginia Satir
Strukturell - Minuchin, Haley
Strategic - Watzlawick
Systemic - Milanogruppen
Selevini, Palazzoli
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Fra Dyad to system
Dyad
Triad
Systems
Punctuation of a circular process
Communication prosess
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A Circular Perspective
 Individal seen as a part of a larger system where
many elements act and react upon each other in
quite unpredictable ways. Because this is a
continuous process the setting is constantly
changing..


”Everthing is connected”
Ecological system analysis
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System theory
The system shapes and reinforces the
indiviual’s behavior from own needs
(for example: homeostase, meaning)
Problem is only a symptom for a
dysfunctional system
Dysfunctions: ”Run away”
Strukture problemes
Myths, rules, meaning
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Ecological perspectives
Bronfenbrenner – developmental analysis
Four levels:
Micro - system
Meso - system
Exo - system
Macro - system
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Macro
Exo
Meso
Micro
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Various Interactive systems
Macro (F. ex. legislation
Ecso system
(Community)
Meso System
(Connections:
Connection btw
Micro systems are
close to child/ youth –
Family, school, etc
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Systemic
Problem defintion
Helping Process
Action plan
• ” System” retains and reinforces
behavior patterns for own needs.
• Behavior is a symptom of the
system way of functioning
• Gather all involved parties
• Through circulat interviewing attain
enough information to develop a
hypothesis.
Plan: Use perturberance to change the
systems rigidity (reframe, give exercises,
change roles, talk).
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Eclectic Approaches
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Technical
Divergerence of theories
Choice of many
Utilize existing theories
Collection of theories
Selection after needs
Use parts of theories
A-theoretical base,
empirical
• Sum of parts
• Realistic
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Theoretical
Convergence of theories
Combination of several
Creating new theory
Mixing theory
Synthesis
Combine parts
More theoretical than
empirical
• More than the sum of the
parts
• Idealistic
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Model for counselor decision making in
individual counseling
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Personal factors
Theory
Strategy
Methods og techniques
Spesific responses
Client-responses
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