Download ch. 9 ppt

Chapter Introduction
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
Section 3: Social Learning
Chapter Objectives · Section 1
Classical Conditioning
Describe classical conditioning,
the learning procedure in which
associations are made between a
neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus.
Chapter Objectives · Section 2
Operant Conditioning
Explain how operant conditioning
occurs when the consequences that
follow a behavior increase or decrease
the likelihood of that behavior
occurring again.
Chapter Objectives · Section 3
Social Learning
Discuss how social learning involves
people making decisions and acting
upon the information available to them.
Main Idea
People acquire certain behaviors through
classical conditioning, a learning procedure in
which associations are made between a neutral
stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
Vocabulary
• classical conditioning
• generalization
• neutral stimulus
• discrimination
• unconditioned
stimulus (US)
• extinction
• unconditioned response (UR)
• conditioned stimulus (CS)
• conditioned response (CR)
Objectives
• Describe the principles of classical
conditioning.
• Outline the techniques of classical
conditioning.
Have you exhibited any behavior related
to conditioning in the past hour?
A. Yes
B. No
C. Not sure
0%
C
B
A
0%
A. A
B. B
0%
C.
C
Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning is a learning
procedure in which associations are made
between a neutral stimulus and an
unconditional stimulus.
– Ivan Pavlov discovered this type of learning
accidentally while using dogs to study the process
of digestion.
– Learning is a relatively permanent change in a
behavioral tendency that results from experience.
Classical Conditioning
Experiment
Classical Conditioning (cont.)
• Neutral stimulus
• Unconditioned stimulus (US)
• Unconditioned response (UR)
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)
• Conditioned response (CR)
Classical Conditioning
Experiment
Leaving class when the bell rings is
best described as what?
A. Neutral stimulus
B. Unconditioned response
C. Conditioned stimulus
D. Conditioned response
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
General Principles of Classical
Conditioning
• Acquisition of a classically conditioned
response that occurs gradually and
increases each time the CS and US are
paired.
• The timing of the association between the
conditioned stimulus and the
unconditioned stimulus also influences
learning.
General Principles of Classical
Conditioning (cont.)
• Pavlov also experimented with generalization
and discrimination (using circles and ovals):
– Generalization
– Discrimination
– Extinction
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
General Principles of Classical
Conditioning (cont.)
• If a rest period is given following extinction,
the CR may reappear when the CS is
presented again but not followed by the US.
• Such a spontaneous recovery does not
bring the CR back to original strength,
however.
What explains a different response to
foods that you like and foods that you
dislike?
A. Acquisition
B. Generalization
C. Discrimination
D. Extinction
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Classical Conditioning and Human
Behavior
• John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner used
conditioning on a human infant in the case
of Little Albert.
• O. Hobart and Mollie Mowrer discovered a
solution to bed-wetting by using classical
conditioning.
Examples of Common
Conditioned Responses
Classical Conditioning and Human
Behavior (cont.)
• Classical conditioning is an example of a
behaviorist theory.
• Behaviorism is the attempt to understand
behavior in terms of relationships between
observable stimuli and observable responses.
• Behaviorists are psychologists who study only
those behaviors that they can observe and
measure.
Classical Conditioning
vs. Operant Conditioning
If the sound of a tornado siren is the
CS, what is the UR?
A. A spinning funnel
B. Freight train sound
C. Distress
D. Taking shelter
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Main Idea
Operant conditioning occurs when the
consequences that follow a behavior
increase or decrease the likelihood of that
behavior occurring again.
Vocabulary
• operant conditioning
• variable-interval schedule
• reinforcement
• shaping
• primary reinforcer
• response chain
• secondary reinforcer
• aversive control
• fixed-ratio schedule
• negative reinforcement
• variable-ratio schedule
• escape conditioning
• fixed-interval schedule
• avoidance conditioning
Objectives
• Outline the principles of operant
conditioning.
• Describe applications of operant
conditioning.
Have you experienced operant
conditioning?
A. Yes
B. No
0%
C
A
0%
A. A
B. B
0%
C. C
B
C. Not sure
Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning
– The term operant is used because the
subject operates on or causes some
change in the environment.
– The participant in operant conditioning
must engage in a behavior in order for
the programmed outcome to occur.
Operant Conditioning
What are some differences between
classical and operant conditioning?
A. how the experimenter
conducts the experiment
D. UR is elicited
0%
D
A
B
0%
C
D
C
0%
A
C. engage in a behavior in
order for the programmed
outcome to occur
A.
B.
0%
C.
D.
B
B. CS and US independent
of the participant’s
behavior
Reinforcement
• Burrhus Frederic Skinner is the psychologist
most closely associated with operant
conditioning.
• He believed that most behavior is influenced
by a person’s history of rewards and
punishments.
Reinforcement (cont.)
• Reinforcement
– Positive reinforcement occurs when
something the animal wants is added
after an action.
– Negative reinforcement occurs when
something unpleasant is taken away if
the animal performs an action.
Reinforcement (cont.)
• A primary reinforcer is a stimulus that is
naturally rewarding, such as food or water.
• A secondary reinforcer is a stimulus,
such as money, that becomes rewarding
through its link with a primary reinforcer.
Do you agree with the following
statement “Extinction will occur if a
dog does not receive his treat after
shaking hands.”
A. Yes
0%
D
0%
A
D. Sometimes
C
C. Not sure
A. A
B. B
C. 0%C
0%
D. D
B
B. No
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Behavior that is reinforced every time it
occurs is said to be on a continuous schedule
of reinforcement.
• When positive reinforcement occurs only
intermittently, or on a partial schedule.
• Ratio schedules are based on numbers of
responses, while interval schedules are
based on time.
Schedules of Reinforcement (cont.)
• Four basic methods, or schedules, of
intermittent reinforcement have been
studied:
– Fixed-ratio schedule
– Variable-ratio schedule
– Fixed-interval schedule
– Variable-interval schedule
Partial Schedules of
Reinforcement
Which of the following is an example of a
variable-interval schedule?
A. Pop-quiz
B. Bi-weekly paycheck
C. Three strikes in baseball
D. Sales commission
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Shaping and Chaining
• Shaping
• Response chain
– Chains of responses are organized into
larger response patterns.
In order to teach a dog to shake
which of the following would you
use?
A. Shaping
B. Chaining
0%
D
C
0%
A
D. Response patterns
B
C. Response chains
A. A
B. B
0%
C. 0%C
D. D
Aversive Control
• Aversive control
• Two ways in which unpleasant events can
affect our behavior:
– Negative reinforcement
– Punishers—an unpleasant consequence
occurs and decreases the frequency of
the behavior that produced it.
Aversive Control (cont.)
• Two uses of negative reinforcement:
– Escape conditioning
– Avoidance conditioning
Aversive Control (cont.)
• Disadvantages:
– Aversive stimuli can produce unwanted side
effects such as rage, aggression, and fear.
– People learn to avoid a person delivering the
aversive consequences.
– Punishment is likely to suppress, but not
eliminate, bad behavior.
– Punishment alone does not teach appropriate
and acceptable behavior.
Do you feel that punishment has any
advantages?
A. Very much so
B. Somewhat
C. Not very much
D. Not at all
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Main Idea
Social learning, consisting of cognitive
learning and modeling, involves how people
make decisions and act upon the information
available to them.
Vocabulary
• social learning
• cognitive learning
• cognitive map
• latent learning
• learned helplessness
• modeling
• behavior
modification
• token economy
Objectives
• Cite the principles involved in cognitive
learning and modeling.
• Identify the principles of learning used in
behavior modification.
How often do you engage in modeled
learning?
A. Very often
B. Somewhat often
C. Not very often
D. Rarely or never
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Social Learning
• Two types of social learning:
– Cognitive learning
– Modeling
If you study hard for a test and still do
poorly, how do you feel?
A. Ready to study
some more
B. Glad the test is over
C. Hopeless
D. Depressed
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Cognitive Learning
• Two examples of cognitive learning:
– Latent learning
– Cognitive maps
Cognitive Learning (cont.)
• Psychologists have shown that general
learning strategies can affect a person’s
relationship to the environment.
• If a person has numerous experiences in
which his or her actions have no effect, he or
she may be taught a general strategy of
learned helplessness.
• Martin Seligman believes learned
helplessness is a major cause of depression.
Learned Helplessness
Cognitive Learning (cont.)
• When people are unable to control events
in their lives, they respond in one of the
following ways:
– They may be less motivated to act and
thus stop trying.
– They may experience a lowered sense
of self-esteem and think negatively
about themselves.
– They may feel depressed.
Cognitive Learning (cont.)
• Three important elements of learned
helplessness:
– Stability—a person’s belief that the state of
helplessness results from permanent
characteristics.
– Globality—generalization—a student believing
he or she fails tests because he or she is
“dumb.”
– Internality—attributing undesirable outcomes
to one’s own inadequacies instead of blaming
them on external circumstance.
How does learned helplessness develop?
A. parents punish children
constantly for any and
all offenses
D. All of the above
0%
D
A
B
0%
C
D
C
0%
A
C. a student is placed in an
advanced math course
without proper preparation
A.
B.
0%
C.
D.
B
B. you are overly critical of
all your friend’s actions
Modeling
• Three different types of effects of modeling:
– Observational learning
– Disinhibition
How strongly do you feel that children
model the violence they witness on
television?
A. Very strongly
B. Somewhat strongly
C. Not very strongly
D. Not strongly at all
0%
A
A.
B.
C.
0%
D.
B
A
B
C
0%
D
C
0%
D
Behavior Modification
• Three types of behavior modification:
– Computer-Aided Instruction
– Token economy
– Self-control
How Social Learning
Works
Behavior Modification (cont.)
• Classical and operant conditioning and
social learning work together to determine
what and how we learn.
Improving Study Habits
Would earning money for good grades
encourage you to work harder in school?
A. Yes
B. No
C
A
0%
A. A
B. B
0%
C.
C 0%
B
C. I don’t know
Classical Conditioning
Experiment
Pavlov’s students used this
apparatus. The tube leading from
the dog’s mouth allowed saliva to
be measured and recorded on the
kymograph.
Examples of Common Conditioned Responses
If you have pets and feed them canned food, what happens when you use the can
opener? The animals may come running even when you are opening a can of peas.
Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning both involve the establishment of
relationships between two events. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning,
though, use very different procedures to reach their goals.
Operant Conditioning
We do not just react to our environment, we behave in ways that seem designed to
produce certain environmental changes. For example, I flip the light switch to
illuminate a room. I say, “Please, pass the salt,” to get the salt shaker.
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement
B.F. Skinner pointed out many examples of how schedules of reinforcement maintain
and control different behaviors. The different schedules produce different response
rates.
Learned Helplessness
What happens when it is impossible for a learner to have an effect on the
environment? What happens when a learner is punished and cannot escape the
punishment? The learner may give up trying to learn.
How Social Learning Works
Social learning theorists argue that much learning results from observing the behavior
of others and from imagining the consequences of our own behavior.
Improving Study Habits
Studying effectively is an active
process. By using successive
approximations (reading one more
page each time you sit down to
study) and positive reinforcements
(rewarding yourself for productive
studying), you can improve your
study habits. The SQ4R and PQ4R
methods are active methods of
studying.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
1849–1936
“While you are
experimenting, do not
remain content with the
surface of things. Don’t
become a mere
recorder of facts, but try
to penetrate the mystery
of their origin.”
Chapter Concepts
Transparencies
Using Classical Conditioning to
Conquer Fears
Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
Select a transparency to view.
classical conditioning: a learning
procedure in which associations are
made between a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus
neutral stimulus: a stimulus that does
not initially elicit any part of an
unconditioned response
unconditioned stimulus (US): an event
that elicits a certain predictable response
typically without previous training
unconditioned response (UR): an
organism’s automatic (or natural)
reaction to a stimulus
conditioned stimulus (CS): a onceneutral event that elicits a given
response after a period of training in
which it has been paired with (occurred
just before) an unconditioned stimulus
conditioned response (CR): the
learned reaction to a conditioned
stimulus
generalization: responding similarly to a
range of similar stimuli
discrimination: the ability to respond
differently to similar but distinct stimuli
extinction: a gradual disappearance of a
conditioned response when the
conditioned stimulus is repeatedly
presented without the unconditioned
stimulus
operant conditioning: learning in which
a certain action is reinforced or punished,
resulting in corresponding increases or
decreases in occurrence
reinforcement: stimulus or event that
follows a response and increases the
likelihood that the response will be
repeated
primary reinforcer: stimulus that is
naturally rewarding, such as food or
water
secondary reinforcer: stimulus such as
money that becomes rewarding through
its link with a primary reinforcer
fixed-ratio schedule: a pattern of
reinforcement in which a specific number
of correct responses is required before
reinforcement can be obtained
variable-ratio schedule: a pattern of
reinforcement in which an unpredictable
number of responses are required before
reinforcement can be obtained
fixed-interval schedule: a pattern of
reinforcement in which a specific amount
of time must elapse before a response
will elicit reinforcement
variable-interval schedule: a pattern of
reinforcement in which changing
amounts of time must elapse before a
response will obtain reinforcement
shaping: technique in which the desired
behavior is “molded” by first rewarding
any act similar to that behavior and then
requiring ever-closer approximations to
the desired behavior before giving the
reward
response chain: learned reactions that
follow one another in sequences, each
reaction producing the signal for the next
aversive control: process of influencing
behavior by means of unpleasant stimuli
negative reinforcement: increasing the
strength of a given response by
removing or preventing a painful stimulus
when the response occurs
escape conditioning: training of an
organism to remove or terminate an
unpleasant stimulus
avoidance conditioning: training of an
organism to respond so as to prevent the
occurrence of an unpleasant stimulus
social learning: process of altering
behavior by observing and imitating the
behavior of others
cognitive learning: forms of altering
behavior that involves mental processes
and may result from observation or
imitation
cognitive map: a mental picture of
spatial relationships or relationships
between events
latent learning: alteration of a
behavioral tendency that is not
demonstrated by an immediate,
observable change in behavior
learned helplessness: condition in
which repeated attempts to control a
situation fail, resulting in the belief that
the situation is uncontrollable
modeling: learning by imitating other;
copying behavior
behavior modification: systematic
application of learning, principles to
change people’s actions and feelings
token economy: conditioning in which
desirable behavior is reinforced with
valueless objects, which can be
accumulated and exchanged for valued
rewards
To use this Presentation Plus! product:
Click the Forward button to go to the next slide.
Click the Previous button to return to the previous slide.
Click the Home button to return to the Chapter Menu.
Click the Transparency button from the Chapter Menu or Chapter Introduction
slides to access the Concept Transparencies that are relevant to this chapter.
From within a section, click on this button to access the relevant Daily Focus
Skills Transparency.
Click the Return button in a feature to return to the main presentation.
Click the Psychology Online button to access online textbook features.
Click the Exit button or press the Escape key [Esc] to end the
chapter slide show.
Click the Help button to access this screen.
Links to Presentation Plus! features such as Profiles in Psychology and
relevant figures from your textbook are located at the bottom of relevant
screens.
This slide is intentionally blank.