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Learning Learning relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience 1 How Do We Learn? We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence. 2000 years ago, Aristotle suggested this law of association. Then 200 years ago Locke and Hume reiterated this law. 2 Association We learn by association Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence Aristotle 2000 years ago John Locke and David Hume 200 years ago Associative Learning learning that two events occur together two stimuli a response and its consequences 3 Association Event 1 Event 2 Learning to associate two events Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics 4 Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning We learn to associate two stimuli 5 Operant Conditioning We learn to associate a response and its consequence 6 Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning organism comes to associate two stimuli a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus 7 Classical Conditioning Sovfoto Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson and B. F. Skinner. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) 8 Ivan Pavlov Classical conditioning Experiments on dogs 9 Classical Conditioning and Pavlov’s Dogs: Hypothesis • Dogs salivate when food is placed in their mouths • Dogs salivate at mere sight of food • Hypothesis: Dogs can be trained, or conditioned, to salivate when exposed to an external stimulus 10 Pavlov’s Experiments Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not. 11 Pavlov’s Experiments During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR) 12 Pavlov’s Methodology and Results Harness dog and place tube to collect saliva Present external stimulus (bell) immediately before giving food Results: After a few trials, the dog salivates upon hearing the bell Works with other stimuli as well 13 Pavlov’s Conclusions Unconditioned Unconditioned Stimulus Response (UCS) (UCR) because of Conditioned Response (CR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) because of 14 Pavlov’s Classic Experiment Before Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) UCR (salivation) During Conditioning Neutral stimulus (tone) No salivation After Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) Neutral stimulus (tone) UCR (salivation) CS (tone) CR (salivation) 15 16 Classical Conditioning NEUTRAL STIMULUS will elicit NO REACTION UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS will elicit a REFLEX ACTION will elicit a REFLEX ACTION will elicit a CONDITIONED RESPONSE17 UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS NEUTRAL STIMULUS CONDITIONED CONDITIONEDSTIMULUS STIMULUS 18 Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a response Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus salivation when food is in the mouth 19 Classical Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus (CS) originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus 20 21 22 Continuing Pavlov’s Experiment Other Aspects of Classical Conditioning Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Generalization Discrimination 23 Classical Conditioning Acquisition the initial stage in classical conditioning the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response 24 Acquisition Acquisition is the initial stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place. 1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus. 2. The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second. 25 Acquisition The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur. 26 Classical Conditioning Extinction diminishing of a CR in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced 27 Extinction When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction. 28 Spontaneous Recovery After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again. 29 Stimulus Generalization Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization. Pavlov conditioned the dog’s salivation (CR) by using miniature vibrators (CS) on the thigh. When he subsequently stimulated other parts of the dog’s body, salivation dropped. 30 Stimulus Discrimination Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. 31 Extending Pavlov’s Understanding Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness, or mind, unfit for the scientific study of psychology. However, they underestimated the importance of cognitive processes and biological constraints. 32 Cognitive Processes Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless mechanisms. However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla, 1988). 33 Biological Predispositions Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals. Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning. However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an animal’s biology. 34 Biological Predispositions Courtesy of John Garcia Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning and not to others (light or sound). John Garcia 35 Biological Predispositions John Garcia Conditioned taste aversions Not all neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli. Internal stimuli—associate better with taste External stimuli—associate better with pain Biological preparedness 36 Cognitive Processes Conditioning occurs best when the CS and UCS have just the sort of relationship that would lead a scientist to conclude that the CS causes the UCS. — even in classical conditioning, it is not only the simple stimulus-response association but also the thought that counts. Conditioning in advertising 37 Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients UCS (drug) UCR (nausea) CS (waiting room) UCS (drug) UCR (nausea) CS (waiting room) CR (nausea) 38 Pavlov’s Legacy Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology is isolating elementary behaviors from more complex ones through objective scientific procedures. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) 39 Applications of Classical Conditioning Brown Brothers Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom. John B. Watson 40 Applications of Classical Conditioning 1. 2. Alcoholics may be conditioned (aversively) by reversing their positive-associations with alcohol. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response. 41 Operant & Classical Conditioning 1. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events. 42 Operant & Classical Conditioning 2. Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli. 43 Behaviorism John B. Watson viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon consensus today recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted by all schools of thought today 44 John Watson and Rosalie Rayner: Hypothesis, Methodology, Results Conditioned fear into an infant Presented a rat immediately followed by a loud noise, startling the baby After a few tries, Albert was afraid of the rat Albert generalized his fears to other furry objects + = 45 Watson took a a baby named Albert and conditioned him to be afraid of white furry objects using Pavlov’s techniques. Watson & Raynor with Little Albert 46 47 Conditional Training: Albert and Peter Conditioned fear experiments such as Albert’s experience would never occur today because of the existing ethical standards. 48 Mary Cover Jones • In 1925, Mary Cover Jones (a colleague of Watson) hypothesized that she would be able to decondition a three-year-old boy named Peter from some of his fears, which included feathers, cotton, frogs, fish, rats, rabbits, and mechanical toys. She began by bringing a caged rabbit into the same room where Peter was having a snack in his highchair. The rabbit was far enough away that it did not bother Peter. The next day, she brought the rabbit increasingly closer to Peter until he began to become disturbed. On subsequent days, the rabbit was moved closer and closer to Peter’s highchair only to the point at which Peter became afraid, at which time they’d end the experiment for the day. Eventually, Peter was able to pet the rabbit, having been deconditioned from his fear. Jones was able to decondition most of Peter’s other fears in this manner. • Watson and Rayner’s experiment with Little Albert showed that people can be conditioned to fear specific types of objects. Conversely, Jones suggested that people could be deconditioned from their fears. Similar methods are used today to help people overcome phobias. 49 Mary Cover Jones Mary Cover Jones used an early form of desensitization to prove that fears (phobias) could be unlearned. Peter, a young boy, had an extreme fear of rabbits. Jones gave Peter his favorite food while slowly bringing the rabbit closer and closer. Eventually Peter no longer panicked around rabbits. 50 Mary Cover Jones • Colleague of Watson • Deconditioned 3-year-old Peter from his fears by gradually moving a rabbit (and other things) closer to him while he was eating DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3 51 Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely 52 Operant Conditioning Operant Behavior operates (acts) on environment produces consequences Respondent Behavior occurs as an automatic response to stimulus behavior learned through classical conditioning 53 Early Operant Conditioning E. L. Thorndike (1898) Puzzle boxes and cats First Trial Scratch at bars After Many Scratch at bars in Box Push at ceiling Trials in Box Push at ceiling Situation: stimuli inside of puzzle box Dig at floor Howl Etc. Situation: stimuli inside of puzzle box Dig at floor Howl Etc. Etc. Etc. Press lever Press lever 54 Edward L. Thorndike ( 1874–1949) 55 Skinner’s Experiments Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s thinking, especially his law of effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again. Yale University Library 56 Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, Skinner developed the Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, to study operant conditioning. Walter Dawn/ Photo Researchers, Inc. From The Essentials of Conditioning and Learning, 3rd Edition by Michael P. Domjan, 2005. Used with permission by Thomson Learning, Wadsworth Division Operant Chamber 57 B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning Classical conditioning involves an automatic response to a stimulus Operant conditioning involves learning how to control one’s response to elicit a reward or avoid a punishment 58 Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect developed behavioral technology 59 B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) 60 The “Skinner Box”: Skinner’s Hypothesis, Methodology, and Results Rats placed in “Skinner boxes” Shaped to get closer and closer to the bar in order to receive food Eventually required to press the bar to receive food Food is a reinforcer 61 Operant Chamber The operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record the animal’s response. 62 Shaping Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations. Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc. Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate objects of different shapes, colors and sizes. 63 64 p. 228 65 p. 228 Types of Reinforcers Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold. Reuters/ Corbis 66 Operant Conditioning Positive Reinforcement any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Negative Reinforcement The removal of a punishment or an aversive stimulus It STRENGTHENS behavior 67 Negative Reinforcement and Punishment Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus 1. Unpleasant stimulus Punishment 1. Introducing an unpleasant stimulus = 2. Removal of unpleasant stimulus 2. Withholding a pleasant stimulus = 68 69 Figure 6.18 Positive reinforcement versus negative reinforcement 70 Figure 6.20 Comparison of negative reinforcement and punishment 71 Operant Conditioning 72 73 74 Primary & Secondary Reinforcers 1. Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink. 2. Conditioned Reinforcer (secondary reinforcer): A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer. 75 Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers 1. Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press. 2. Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week. We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study. 76 Reinforcement Schedules 1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs. 2. Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on. 77 Rates and Types of Reinforcement: Additional Experiments Fixed-ratio: food given after a fixed number of responses Variable-ratio: number of responses required to get food changes each time Fixed-interval: food given after a certain amount of time elapses Variable-interval: amount of time required to get food changes each time 78 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses faster you respond the more rewards you get different ratios very high rate of responding like piecework pay 79 Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Ratio (VR) reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses average ratios like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability 80 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Interval (FI) reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near 81 Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Interval (VI) reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals produces slow steady responding like pop quiz 82 Schedules of Reinforcement Number of responses 1000 Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Fixed Interval 750 Rapid responding near time for reinforcement 500 Variable Interval 250 Steady responding 0 10 20 30 40 50 Time (minutes) 60 70 80 83 Punishment Punishment aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows powerful controller of unwanted behavior 84 Punishment An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows. 85 Punishment Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind, 2002), it usually leads to negative effects. 1. 2. 3. 4. Results in unwanted fears. Conveys no information to the organism. Justifies pain to others. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its absence. 5. Causes aggression towards the agent. 6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in place of another. 86 Updating Skinner’s Understanding Skinner’s emphasis on external control of behavior made him an influential, but controversial figure. Many psychologists criticized Skinner for underestimating the importance of cognitive and biological constraints. 87 88 Cognition & Operant Conditioning Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps (E.C. Tolman), or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment). 89 Cognitive Approach This approach emphasizes abstract and subtle learning that could not be achieved through conditioning or social learning alone. Some learning is not intentional, but occurs almost accidentally—a situation called latent learning. Learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Expectancies are beliefs about our ability to perform an action and to get the desired reward. Expectancies affect learning. 90 Latent Learning Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930). 91 Cognition and Operant Conditioning Overjustification Effect the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task 92 Motivation Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments. 93 Biological Predisposition Photo: Bob Bailey Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift towards their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors. Marian Breland Bailey 94 Skinner’s Legacy Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will. . Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc 95 Skinner’s Importance Education: programmed instruction Work Parenting Personal goals 96 Applications of Operant Conditioning Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards. LWA-JDL/ Corbis In School 97 Applications of Operant Conditioning Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic performance. In Sports 98 Applications of Operant Conditioning Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share profits and participate in company ownership. At work 99 Applications of Operant Conditioning In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence. 100 Operant vs. Classical Conditioning 101 Observational Learning Observational Learning (Albert Bandura) learning by observing and imitating others Modeling process of observing and imitating a specific behavior Prosocial Behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior opposite of antisocial behavior 102 Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments. Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University Bandura's Experiments 103 Albert Bandura: Hypothesis = • Believed we learn through observation and imitation • Hypothesized that children would imitate aggressive behavior they observed 104 Bandura’s Methodology • Children watched films of adults beating Bobo dolls • Three groups: aggression-rewarded, aggressionpunished, no consequences • Children went into rooms with toys that they were told not to play with 105 Bandura’s Results EFFECT OF OBSERVED CONSEQUENCE ON IMITATIVE BEHAVIOR 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 GIRLS BOYS 1.5 1 0.5 0 MODEL REWARDED MODEL PUNISHED NO CONSEQUENCES • Children in the aggression-punished group expressed the fewest aggressive behaviors toward the Bobo dolls • Children in the other two groups expressed an equal number of aggressive behaviors and were more aggressive than children in the aggression-punished 106 group Bandura’s Experiment + Viewing aggressive behavior = Rewards for imitation Aggressive behavior • Children promised rewards for imitating the adult in the film • Now, all three groups were equally aggressive • Children had learned the aggressive behavior from the film, but those who saw the adults being punished were 107 less likely to act aggressively Bandura’s Social Learning Theory • Relates to effects of violence and other images on TV and in the movies • Children imitate good and neutral behaviors as well as bad ones 108 This series of photographs shows children observing and modeling aggressive behavior. Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment 109 110 p. 244 Positive Observational Learning Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects. 111 Applications of Observational Learning Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects. 112 Learning by Observation © Herb Terrace Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others. ©Herb Terrace The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward. 113 Reprinted with permission from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Subiaul et al., Science 305: 407-410 (2004) © 2004 AAAS. Mirror Neurons Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning. 114 Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart. Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants. Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk. Imitation Onset 115 Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression. Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images Television and Observational Learning 116 Modeling Violence Children modeling after pro wrestlers Glassman/ The Image Works Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression. 117 118 Famous last words??? Do what I say, not what I do— This will teach you to hit your brother— Why do you do that, you know you get in trouble for it— 119 CHRISTMAS CAROLS FOR THE PSYCHIATRICALLY CHALLENGED Schizophrenia: Do You Hear What I Hear? Multiple Personality Disorder: We Three Queens Disoriented Are Amnesia: I Don't Know if I'll be Home for Christmas Narcissistic: Hark the Herald Angels Sing About Me Manic: Deck the Halls and Walls and House and Lawn and Streets and Stores and Office and Town and Cars and Buses and Trucks and Trees and Fire Hydrants and ... Paranoid: Santa Claus is Coming to Get Me Borderline Personality Disorder: Thoughts of Roasting on an Open Fire Personality Disorder: You Better Watch Out, I'm Gonna Cry, I'm Gonna Pout, Maybe I'll tell You Why Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: Jingle Bells, Jingle Bells, Jingle Bells, Jingle Bells, Jingle Bells, Jingle Bells, Jingle Bells, Jingle Bells, Jingle Bells ... Agoraphobia: I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day But Wouldn't Leave My House Autistic: Jingle Bell Rock and Rock and Rock and Rock ... Senile Dementia: Walking in a Winter Wonderland Miles From My House in My Slippers and Robe Oppositional Defiant Disorder: I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus So I Burned Down the House Social Anxiety Disorder: Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas While I Sit Here and Hyperventilate 120