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Transcript
Unit 15 – Social Psychology Overview • • • • • • • Attribution, Attitudes, and Actions Conformity and Obedience Group Behavior Prejudice and Discrimination Aggression Attraction Altruism, Conflict, and Peacemaking Introduction • Social Psychology • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=epuTZi gxUY8 “The Lunch Date” The Fundamental Attribution Error • Attribution theory –Dispositional vs. situational attribution –Fundamental attribution error –Self-serving bias – readiness to percieve self admirably Attitudes Affect Actions • Attitude –Central route persuasion –Peripheral route persuasion Actions Affect Attitudes: The Foot-inthe-Door Phenomenon • The Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon –“start small and build” – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XiRSuzT4jS0 Actions Affect Attitudes: Role Playing Affects Attitudes • Role-Playing Affects Attitudes –Role –Stanford prison study 1972 –Abu Ghraib – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=760lwYmp Xbc Actions Affect Attitudes: Role Playing Affects Attitudes –Abu Ghraib – US in 2004, Iraqi prisoners –https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f a7QZWfivtc (5 min) –https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= OzK8UFKGOiw (Zimbardo, The Lucifer Effect, 2012)- watch first 5 minutes) Actions Affect Attitudes: Role Playing Affects Attitudes • Mere-Exposure Effect • http://httpserver.carleton.ca/~warrent/2100/ex posure%20effect.html • Cognitive Dissonance: Relief from Tension • Cognitive Dissonance: Relief From Tension –Cognitive dissonance theory –“Attitudes follow behavior” Cognitive Dissonance: Relief from Tension • Cognitive Dissonance – theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feels when two of our thoughts (cognition) are inconsistent. • E.g., when we become aware that our attitudes and our action clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQiCpfKOOs – Coach Carter Conformity: Complying With Social Pressures Conformity: adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard Conformity: Automatic Mimicry • Chameleon effect – synchronize behavior and speech with peers • Helps us empathize • Mood linkage Conformity: Complying With Social Pressures Conformity and Social Norms Conformity: Complying With Social Pressures Conformity and Social Norms • Conformity – Solomon Asch study – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TYIh4Mkcf JA Conformity and Social Norms • “Face the Rear” • http://www.guzer.com/videos/elevatorpsychology.php • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Njz9Tr Ljz5k – “Picketing Against Everything” Conformity: Conditions That Strengthen Conformity – One is made to feel incompetent or insecure – Group has at least three people – Group is unanimous – One admires the group’s status – One has made no prior commitment – Others in group observe one’s behavior – One’s culture strongly encourages respect for social standards Conformity and Social Norms • Reasons for Conforming –Normative social influence –Informational social influence Obedience: Following Orders • Obedience –Milgram’s studies on obedience • Procedure • Results • Ethics • Follow up studies Milgram Obedience Experiment https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= HwqNP9HRy7Y Milgram - Obedience https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FBa89XhxcTs https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x2Bb3mBSDo0 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FWSxSQsspiQ Obedience: Following Orders Conformity vs Obedience Conformity Obedience What is it? Going along with the crowd/yielding to group pressure Behaving as instructed! Who ‘asks’? Nobody, we act to Authority figures: please peers, friends, parents, teachers (no social group don’t laugh!), police, government etc. Why do we do it? To be accepted, liked To avoid punishment or just to fit in or to or unpleasant avoid feeling silly consequences Lessons From the Obedience Studies- Who Obeys? • The person giving the orders was close at hand and perceived to be a legitimate authority figure • The authority figure was supported by a prestigious institution • The victim was depersonalized or at a distance • There were no role models for defiance Lessons From the Obedience Studies • Ordinary people being corrupted by an evil situation Social Facilitation • Social Facilitation –Task difficulty –Expertise effects –Crowding effects Social Loafing • Social Loafing – Tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward a common goal • Less accountability • View themselves as dispensable Deinviduation • Deindividuation- loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations which foster social arousal AND anonymity Group Polarization Group PolarizationEnhance a group’s prevailing inclinations after discussion within the group May be good/bad Groupthink • Groupthink – the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decisionmaking group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives • May be “good” or “bad” Groupthink • Groupthink – Bay of Pigs – Kennedy/1961 – Challenger explosion – “O rings” (1/28/86) -Invasion of Iraq – “weapons of mass distruction” (2004 Senate Intelligence Committee) The Power of Individuals • Social control vs personal control • Minority influence • (Gandhi) Cultural Influences • Culture –Culture within animals –Culture in humans Cultural Influences Variation Across Cultures • Norm –Culture shock –Pace of life Cultural Influences: Variation Over Time • Changes over the generations Prejudice • • • • Prejudice - attitude Stereotype - belief Discrimination – behavior May be implicit racial association, unconscious patronization, race-influenced perceptions, and reflexive bodily responses • Gender predjudice- prefer female faces nurturing How Prejudiced Are People? Social Inequalities • Just world phenomenon • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U8Y7iFB W010 • Blame the victim Us and Them: Ingroup and Outgroup • Us & Them: Ingroup and Outgroup – Ingroup- people with whom we share an identity – Outgroup- people perceived as apart from the ingroup – Ingroup bias- favor our own group Emotional Roots of Prejudice • Emotional roots of prejudice – Scapegoat theory – “fear and anger create aggression & aggression against those of different ethnicity or race creates racism” – Economic variables – Negative emotions Cognitive Roots of Prejudice • Categorization –Outgroup homogeneity –Other-race effect • Vivid cases • Believing the world is just –Hindsight bias The Biology of Aggression • Aggression – physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy • Genetic Influences: twins • Neural Influences: limbic system • Biochemical Influencestestosterone, alcohol Aggression: Aversive Events Frustration-aggression principle – blocking attempt to achieve a goal creates anger which can generate aggression • Social and cultural influences – Aggression-replacement program Aversive Events: • Reinforcement and Modeling – Aggression-replacement program- teaching how to control anger e.g. with gangs • Media Model for Violence – Social scripts- provide a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations • Do violent video games teach social scripts for violence? The Psychology of Attraction:Proximity • Proximity – Mere exposure effect – familiarity breeds fondness – Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases our liking of them – We favor the face we see in the mirror rather than the reverse Physical Attractiveness • Physical attractiveness The Psychology of Attraction: Similarity • Similarity –Positive correlation between similarity and liking –Reward theory of attraction Romantic Love • Love – Passionate love – Companionate love • Equity – people receive from a relationship what they give to it • Self-disclosure- revealing • intimate aspects of self to • others Altruism • Altruism- unselfish regard for others’ welfare – Kitty Genovese • Bystander Intervention – Diffusion of responsibility – Bystander effect – Best odds of help are if the person appears to need or deserve help, person is similar to us, and the person is a woman https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OSsPfbu p0ac Altruism Altruism: The Norms for Helping • Social exchange theory- our social behavior is in exchange to maximize benefit and minimize costs • Reciprocity norm- people will help and not harm those who have helped them • Social-responsibility norm• we will help those who appear to need the help The Hawthorne Effect • http://psychology.about.com/od/hindex/g/def _hawthorn.htm • People may behave differently when they know they are being observed Walter Mischel- Delayed Gratification • video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IQzM8jRp oh4 Conflict and Peacemaking Elements of Conflict: Enemy Perceptions • Mirror-image perceptions • Self-fulfilling prophecy Enemy Perceptions • Mirror-image perceptions – mutual views often held by conflicting people as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive • Self-fulfilling prophecy –a belief that leads to its own fulfillment Promoting Peace • Contact & Cooperation – Superordinate goals – shared goals that override differences among people and require cooperation Peacemaking: Promoting Peace • Communication • Conciliation • GRIT = graduated and reciprocated initiative in tension reduction- as in international relations Social Psychology = the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. Attribution Theory = the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition. Fundamental Attribution Error = the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. Attitude = feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events. Peripheral Route Persuasion = occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness. Central Route Persuasion = occurs when influenced people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon = the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. Role = a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. Cognitive Dissonance Theory = the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes. Conformity = adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. Normative Social Influence = influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. Informational Social Influence = influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality. Social Facilitation = stronger responses on simple or welllearned tasks in the presence of others. Social Loafing = the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable. Deindividuation = the loss of self-awareness and selfrestraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. Group Polarization = the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the groups. Groupthink = the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. Culture = the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. Norm = an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior. Prejudice = an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action. Stereotype = a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people. Discrimination = unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members. Just-World Phenomenon = the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. Ingroup = “Us” – people with whom we share a common identity. Outgroup = “Them” – those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup. Ingroup Bias = the tendency to favor our own group. Scapegoat Theory = the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame. Other-Race Effect = the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias. Aggression = any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy. Frustration-Aggression Principle = the principle that frustration – the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal – creates anger, which can generate aggression. Social Script = culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations. Mere Exposure Effect = the phenomenon the repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them. Passionate Love = an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship. Companionate Love = the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined. Equity = a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it. Self-Disclosure = revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others. Altruism = unselfish regard for the welfare of others. Bystander Effect = the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present. Social Exchange Theory = the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. Reciprocity Norm = an expectation that people will help, not hurt those who have helped them. Social-Responsibility Norm = an expectation that people will help those needing their help.. Conflict = a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. Social Trap = a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their selfinterest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. Mirror-Image Perceptions = mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy = a belief that leads to its own fulfillment. Superordinate Goals = shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.