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CHAPTER 2 GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FOUNDATIONS LEARNING OUTCOMES • Define genes and how they are transmitted from one generation to the next • Describe genetic inheritance • Identify Reproductive choices • Describe environmental contexts for development • Understand the relationship between heredity and environment 2 KEY WORDS • DEFINE EACH • CHROMOSOME • DNA • MITOSIS • GAMETES • MEIOSIS • ZYGOTE 3 Genetic Foundations Chromosomes Rodlike structures within the cells that store and transmit genetic information DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, the chemical substance that makes up chromosomes Gene Segment of DNA along the length of the chromosome Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis Process by which DNA duplicates itself Produces new body cells containing the same genetic information Meiosis Process by which gametes (sex cells) are formed Halves the number of chromosomes normally present Leads to genetic variability MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS 6 QUESTIONS • TRUE OR FALSE THE FEMALE IS BORN WITH A BANK OF OVA ALREADY PRESENT IN HER OVARIES • WHAT ABOUT MALES? • X CHROMOSOME IS LARGER OR SMALLER THAN Y CHROMOSOME • XX IS __________ • XY IS __________ • SEE PAGE 37 FOR ANSWER 7 CHROMOSOMES, GENES, AND DNA Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 8 Define genes and how they are transmitted from one generation to the next 9 Autosomes, Sex Chromosomes, and Sex Cells Autosomes 22 matching pairs of chromosomes Sex chromosomes 23rd pair of chromosomes (XX = female, XY = male) Gametes Sex cells: sperm and ovum Zygote Formed when sperm and ovum unite Genotype and Phenotype Genotype An individual’s genetic information Phenotype An individual’s directly observable characteristics © szefei/Fotolia Twins Fraternal/Dizygotic Result from release and fertilization of two ova Identical/Monozygotic Result when a single zygote separates to form two individuals © Blend Images/Shutterstock Alleles Two forms of the same gene, one inherited from each parent homozygous (both alleles are alike) heterozygous (alleles differ) Occur at the same place on both chromosomes in a pair Resources: http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/inheritanc e/observable/ CARD GAME – OBSERVATION OF TRAITS Dominant–Recessive Inheritance Only the dominant allele affects children’s phenotypic characteristics Carriers: heterozygous (have one recessive allele) can pass recessive trait to their children Many serious diseases are product of recessive alleles 15 Incomplete Dominance Both alleles are expressed in the phenotype Possible results: combined trait trait that is intermediate between the two Example: sickle cell anemia X-Linked Inheritance Figure 2.4 Genomic Imprinting, Mutation, and Polygenic Inheritance Genomic imprinting: chemical marker activates one allele in a pair often temporary; may not occur in all individuals Mutation: sudden, permanent change in a segment of DNA may affect one or two genes, or many Polygenic inheritance: characteristics influenced by many genes Chromosomal Abnormalities Down syndrome: caused by problems with 21st chromosome Sex chromosome abnormalities: caused by problems with X or Y chromosome often not recognized until adolescence © Denis Kuvaev/Shutterstock Prenatal Diagnostic Methods See page 44 Amniocentesis Chorionic villus sampling Fetoscopy Ultrasound Maternal blood analysis Ultrafast magnetic resonance imaging Preimplantation genetic diagnosis © PhotographyByMK/Shutterstock 21 Genetic Counseling Helps couples assess chances of hereditary disorders choose best course of action in view of risks and family goals Recommended when couple has had difficulties bearing children known genetic problems exist woman is over 35 Reproductive Choices © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock Genetic counseling Prenatal diagnosis and fetal medicine Reproductive technologies Adoption Reproductive Technologies Donor insemination In vitro fertilization Surrogate motherhood New technologies © Burlingham/Shutterstock VIDEO ON REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY • http://abavtooldev.pearsoncmg.com/VPsms/simpleviewer.php?projectID =BerkICA7&clipID=004_ReproductiveTechnology.flv&ui=2 25 Adoption Trends: international adoption adoption of older children adoption of children with known developmental problems © Vitalinka/Shutterstock Children typically exhibit some difficulties, but most fare well Environmental Contexts for Development Family Socioeconomic status and family functioning Neighborhoods, towns, and cities Cultural context © Mat Hayward/Fotolia Family Influences on Development © auremar/Fotolia Direct influences Indirect influences: effects of third parties Adaptation to changes within and outside the family Socioeconomic Status (SES) Social status: years of education prestige of one’s job and skill it requires Economic status: income © Yanming Zhang/Shutterstock Socioeconomic Status and Family Functioning SES is linked to: timing of marriage and parenthood family size values and expectations for children parents’ education and economic security communication and discipline styles investment in children’s cognitive development Poverty Who Is Poor? 46 million Americans (15%) are poor Those hit hardest are: parents under age 25 with young children, especially single mothers older adults who live alone, especially women children, especially AfricanAmerican, Native-American, © gcelebi/Shutterstock and Hispanic children Indicators of Children’s Health and Well-Being Table 2.3 (Sources: Canada Campaign 2000, 2009; OECD 2010; U.S. Census Bureau, 2012; U.S. Department of Education, 2012.) Percentage of Older Adults Living in Poverty Figure 2.5 (Adapted from Luxembourg Income Study, 2011.) KERN COUNTY POVERTY • http://www.countyhealthrankings.org/ • http://kern.org/kcnc/wpcontent/uploads/sites/43/2015/06/2015ReportCard_interactive.pdf 34 Affluence What Are the Risks of Affluence? Alcohol and drug use High levels of anxiety and depression Unavailable parents: © Beata Wawrzyniuk/Shutterstock lack of emotional closeness and supervision excessive demands for achievement Gene–Environment Interaction Individuals respond differently to same environment because of genetic makeup Similar responses can result from different gene–environment combinations © atikinka/Shutterstock AVERAGE RISK OF SCHIZOPHRENIA THE AVERAGE RISK OF SCHIZOPHRENIA STEADILY INCREASES IN DIRECT RELATION TO THE CLOSENESS OF ONE'S BIOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIP TO AN INDIVIDUAL WITH THE DISORDER. 37 38 39 Gene–Environment Correlation Page 55 Passive correlation Evocative correlation Active correlation: niche-picking © szefei/Shutterstock Epigenesis Development results from bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of environment Genes affect behavior and experiences Experiences and behavior affect gene expression THE EPIGENETIC FRAMEWORK Figure 2.7 (Adapted from Gottlieb, 2007.) teratogenic effect • teratogenic effect • http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/teratogenic+effect • https://www.purdue.edu/ehps/rem/ih/terat.htm • Look at Page 57 – • What are your Thoughts, • Do you think People in Kern County understand how their Environment and behaviors can Impact their Child’s well Being? • What do you think would resonate or Get someone's attention? 43 KERN COUNTY REFLECTION • KERN COUNTY ENVIRONMENT • SMOKING EXAMPLE • BIOLOGY AND ENVIORNMENT • READ PAGE 57 44 REVIEW LEARNING OUTCOMES • Define genes and how they are transmitted from one generation to the next • Describe genetic inheritance • Identify Reproductive choices • Describe environmental contexts for development • Understand the relationship between heredity and environment 45