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CHAPTER 2 THE START OF LIFE: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT STATEMENT OF INTENT FOR THIS COURSE Background • I did not select this text • This is the first time I’ve used it • I apologize for the selection and for the author This class is not a course in politics or religion. Your grade in this class will NOT be based on • Repeating my political views • Repeating the author’s political views • Anyone’s Ideology To the extent possible, this course will be about Science. The Science of human development. Therefore there will be entire sections of chapters we will not cover. STATEMENT OF INTENT CONT. FOR THIS COURSE The text contains considerable material which may be of interest to various professions but does not seem to be a part of developmental psychology. Topics like IVF, government policy, testing, abortion, and the like will not be covered in class as their connection to development is tenuous. Students with questions about this material may ask questions in class or contact me outside of the classroom. Let’s chat about what I’m leaving out. Do you get this material in other classes? My Observation on Observational Methodology • • • • • • • • Based on discussion w/ my spouse during our trip Un(der?)-reported Observational Method Error Author makes this error Of course, “everybody knows” that observational research is People make this error correlational but… Behavior is observed Behavior is recorded and reported Behavior is ascribed to a cause. However, the actual cause is – Not observable – Unknown based on observation • Observation alone does not disclose causation EARLIEST DEVELOPMENT Beginning of Life •Gametes from male and female join – ovum – sperm •Fused gametes create zygote •Resulting combination of their genetic instructions is sufficient to begin creation of human life Contents of a Single Human Cell # changes fairly regularly • Genes – Specific DNA sequences • Chromosomes – Rod-shaped DNA portions in 23 pairs – Contain genetic blueprint for individuals – Replicate through mitosis Other Conception Mechanisms • Think of reproduction at the cellular level as a kind of war between reproducing organisms. • Each “wants” to pass on the most information • Females have advantage via the egg which contributes all of an animal’s mitochondrial genes – well, usually • Result: – Ovum “selects” sperm to use – Sperm “regulates” gene expression in the egg Multiple Births: Two-or More-for the Genetic Price of One There are different kinds of multiple births • Monozygotic • Dizygotic • Trizygotic and so on… Causes of multiple births • Fertility drugs • Environmental agents? • Racial, ethnic, and national (?) differences • Family, e.g. inherited predilection Rising Multiples Lousy chart Note nonlinear scale Establishing the Sex of the Child Also XXY and other abnormalities Mixing and Matching of Genes Basics of genetics • Dominant traits • Trait that is expressed when dominant gene is present • Expressed even if paired with a recessive gene Notation uses a capital letter (B) • Recessive traits • Trait not expressed when a dominant gene is present • Expressed only if paired w/ same recessive gene Notation uses a lower case letter (b) • Polygenic traits • Expression controlled by multiple genes • Complex gene interaction • Neither Dominant or Recessive - like blood types (AB) Just the right type Genotype Underlying genetic material but not outwardly visible. Some genes “pair up” forming alleles – alternate forms • Homozygous • 2 similar forms of the gene (BB or bb) • Heterozygous • 2 different forms of the gene (Bb or bB) Phenotype Observable trait Genetic Information Transmission Cracking the Genetic Code • The Human Genome • National Human Genome Research Institute • http://www.genome.gov/ Humans less variable than any other primate. Northern Europeans have Neanderthal genes. Asians have Denisovan genes. Africans have only human genes. Highly Misleading Information from the Human Genome Project & Private Research Current Understanding of the Genetic Basis of Some Disorders and Traits When Development Deviates from the Norm Causes Genetics Spontaneous mutation Environmental insult THE INTERACTION OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT Role of the Environment in Determining the Expression of Genes: From Genotypes to Phenotypes Given behavior is not caused just by genetic factors; nor is it caused solely by environmental forces • Multifactorial transmission • Genotype provides a range of possible outcomes • Environment chooses a value in the range • Some genotypes sensitive to environment • Some genotypes unaffected by environment • One example is stress of mother during pregnancy Range of Possibilities: Determinants of Intelligence It is reasonable to believe that: • Plasticity or sensitivity to environmental mitigation varies between individuals. • Mitigation effects may have varying permanency. • Mitigation effects may have ‘critical periods’. Studying Development How Much Is Development? How Much Is Nature? Nonhuman animal studies • Controlling genetics and environment • Same genetics different environments • Different genetics same environment Human studies • Adoption • Identical & non-identical twins • Twin studies • Not without bias due to adoption agency placement policy • Family studies • Unrelated children same family environment • Genetic similarity between parents and children Do you have your mother's eyes? And other lies about genetics found in textbooks Family resemblances • More genetically similarity more likely to share physical characteristics • • • • • • Obesity, blood pressure, respiration rates, age at death Eye color Myths of Human Genetics Hair color Required reading Height Muscle structure And so forth Nature, Nurture, and Intelligence • Relative contributions of nature & nurture highly studied • Relative contributions highly politicized • Closer genetic link => higher relation of overall IQ scores • Controversy over measurement methods • Northeast vs. Southeast • Race • Immigrants • Urban vs. Rural Note: IQ is actually far more complex than a single score on a paper test. Genetics and I.Q. Do we inherit our personality? Genetic and Environmental Influence on Personality: Born to Be Outgoing? Two* of “Big Five” personality traits linked to genetic factors: Neuroticism* Extroversion* Contentiousness Openness Agreeableness What evidence supports this claim? Psychological Disorders: The Role of Genetics and the Environment • Culture • Parental encouragement Can you think of any others? Developmental Diversity Can a culture's philosophical outlook be determined by genetics? Are there “good” and “bad” cultures? Not Relevant Mean Behavioral Scores for Caucasian American, Irish, and Chinese 4-Month-Old Infants The Genetics of Schizophrenia Fundamental Principle Within debate about relative influence of nature and nurture • Role of genetics is often to • produce tendency toward future course of development • Bound possible range • Role of environment affects when and whether a certain behavioral characteristic will actually be displayed • Direct control • Interactive control Can Genes Influence the Environment? Sandra Scarr suggests three ways child's genetic predisposition may influence his or her environment: • Active • Passive • Evocative PRENATAL GROWTH AND CHANGE Fertilization: The Moment of Conception Germinal Stages of Prenatal Development • Germinal – Fertilization thru implantation • Embryonic • Fetal The Visible Embryo is a visual guide through fetal development from fertilization through pregnancy to birth. http://www.visembryo.com/baby/index.html Stages of the Prenatal Period Germinal Stage Fertilization two weeks • Shortest stage • During the first few cellular divisions, a zygote is properly called a morula, or mass of cells. • At 3 days zygote has 32 cells • A zygote undergoes cellular division for four days. • On the fifth day it forms a blastocyst. • Blastocyst • inner cell mass, or embryoblast, which forms the embryo • outer layer of cells, or trophoblast, surrounds the inner cell mass • fluid-filled cavity known as the blastocoele. • The human blastocyst has 70-100 cells. Germinal Stage Continued Fertilization two weeks • Blastocyst continued: • Travels to and implants in uterus • Characterized by methodical cell division • With division comes cell specialization Embryonic Stage 2 weeks 8 weeks • Organism firmly secures to uterus and is called an embryo • Development of major organs and basic anatomy Three distinct layers that forms different structures • Ectoderm • Endoderm • Mesoderm Body Proportions Fetal Stage 8 weeks Birth • Formally starts when differentiation of major organs has occurred • Organism now called fetus • Characterized by rapid development – Organs become more differentiated and begin working – Interconnections between body parents become more complex and integrated – Brain becomes more sophisticated Note dissimilar scales making comparisons confusing Older Women and Risks of Pregnancy Threats to Development Prenatal environment: Enter at your own risk! • Teratogens • Recreational Drugs: Heroin, Cocaine, and Crack • Prescribed Drugs: Thalidomide, SSRIs, many more! • Alcohol • Smoking • Caffeine • Low Birth Weight • Rarely - physical injury, radiation, Excellent review on Wikipedia : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teratology Teratogen Sensitivity Timeline Mother's Prenatal Influence • • • • • • Diet Age Prenatal support Health Drug use Alcohol use – Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) – Fetal alcohol effects (FAE) • Tobacco use • Plasticizers & other hormone mimics (Bisphenol A - BPA) • List of estrogen mimics Father's Prenatal Influence • Relatively little research • Tobacco use • Drug use – Cocaine use harmful because tiny specks of cocaine can bind to sperm and “piggyback” their way into the zygote – Marijuana • Alcohol damages sperm, increases maternal stress • Treatment of mother Becoming an Informed Consumer Optimizing the Prenatal Environment • Avoid X-rays & birth control pills • Get rubella vaccination • Eat well and take prenatal vitamins • Avoid alcohol and other drugs • Avoid men who are alcohol or drug users • Monitor caffeine intake • Avoid smoking & exposure to secondhand smoke • Exercise regularly