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Remainder of Chapter 23 • Read the remaining materials; they address information specific to understanding evolution • Always read the Featured Investigation and Genomes and Proteomes sections of each chapter Gene - specific location of the genetic information for a given trait Allele - The actual chemical composition of a gene. Determines how characteristic/ trait is expressed. Polymorphism – two or more forms present Allele Frequency - The frequency of occurrence of alleles in a population. Genotypic Frequency - frequency of occurrence of genotypes in a population. Population – group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area (can interbreed if reproduce sexually). Gene Pool – All of the genes (more accurately all of the alleles) present in a population. • Genotype - specific chemical composition of alleles defining a trait. – AA – Aa – aa Homozygous Dominant Heterozygous Homozygous Recessive • Phenotype - physical expression of a trait – If the alleles for a trait are simple dominant and recessive, then: • For AA and Aa, dominant trait is physically expressed • If aa, recessive trait is expressed Evolution • Is a genetic change in a population (not an individual) over time • Scientists look at phenotypic (physical changes), in most cases, because that is how we recognize populations. • It is, however, changes in the genotype, or more specifically, the gene pool. Allele Frequencies The frequency of occurrence of alleles in a population. If we use the simple one dominant and one recessive allele model, this can be demonstrated by: p = frequency of the dominant allele q = frequency of the recessive allele Example AA - 30 individuals Aa - 20 individuals aa - 50 individuals p = 2(# individuals AA) + # individuals Aa 2(Total # individuals in population) p + q = 1; therefore q = 1 - p Example p = 2(30) + 20 2(100) = 0.4 p + q = 1; therefore q = 1 - 0.4 = 0.6 With these values, we can calculate the probability of what genotypes would be present in the next generation if this population were to mate randomly Genotypic Frequencies p2 = probability of AA q2 = probability of aa 2pq = probability of Aa p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 Mechanisms for Evolutionary Change Mutation Genetic Drift (small population size) Gene Flow (immigration and emigration) Non-Random Mating Natural Selection Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium In diploid, sexually reproducing organisms, phenotypes, genotypes and genes all tend to come to equilibrium in populations in certain conditions are met Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium No Mutation Large Population Size No immigration or emigration Random Mating No Selection for Traits Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Provides a means of experimentally demonstrating what happens to populations in the absence of evolution. How Natural Selection Works • Variation occurs in every group of living organisms. Individuals are not identical in any population. • Every population produces an excess of offspring. • Competition will occur among these offspring for the resources they need to live. How Natural Selection Works • The most fit offspring will survive. • If the characteristics of the most fit organisms are inherited, these traits will be passed on to the next generation. Darwinian Fitness Relative contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation Natural Selection • The most fit genotypes will be more strongly represented in subsequent generations • Less fit genotypes will remain in the population, but at low numbers • If environmental conditions change, fitness will change figure 21-12.jpg Figure 21.12 Figure 21.12 Stabilizing Selection Directional Selection Figure 21.13 Figure 21.13 Disruptive Selection Fig. 24.5a – Disruptive Selection Maintenance of Variation • Less fit alleles not completely eliminated • Still reproduce, but do not produce as many offspring • Also interbreed with more fit individuals • Balancing Selection – Heterozygous advantage – Negative frequency-dependent selection Fig. 24.6 Properties of Fitness • Fitness is a property of a genotype, not an individual or population. • Fitness is specific to a particular environment. As the environment changes, so does the fitness of genotypes. • Fitness is measured over one generation or more. Sexual Selection • Traits that infer greater fitness • Sexual dimorphism – Secondary sex characteristics • Intrasexual • Intersexual • Featured Investigation 22.16 The Longer the Tail, the Better the Male (Part 1) 22.16 The Longer the Tail, the Better the Male (Part 2) Genetic Drift • Random events – missed opportunity, disturbance Fig. 24.10 Gene Flow • Changes in gene pool resulting from immigration or emigration • random • Founder effect Founder Effect – colonizers establish genetic make up of new population Mutation • Changes in chemical composition of a gene • Random • Only way new alleles can be added • Most mutations are deleterious • Neutral mutations add variation without changing phenotype Nonrandom Mating • Mating due to some attribute – Sexual selection – Similar phenotype