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BIOLOGY Final Exam Review Scientific Method • Organized technique of solving problems or answering questions about the world around us. • It’s Role in Science – Gives focus and direction to investigations • Steps 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) State the Problem (Question) Gather Information and Form a Hypothesis Experiment to Test the Hypothesis Record and Analyze Data Draw Conclusions Hypothesis vs Theory Hypothesis Theory A proposed solution or answer to a scientific question/problem. A well tested explanation that is well supported . An idea to be tested! Must be testable! Already has been tested many times! Explains a wide range of observations from various experiments Experimentation Experiments need to be controlled whenever possible! Controlled experiment means only 1 factor (variable) is being altered between the control and experimental groups Control Group Experimental Group -same conditions as experimental group except factor being tested (manipulated variable) -All other factors (variables) are kept constant (= constants) -used for comparison -Manipulated variable is deliberately altered. *ex: cholesterol drug -Responding variables are monitored to see if there is any difference from control group *ex: cholesterol levels decrease more than subjects in control group Sources of Error During Experimentation Avoidable Unavoidable • Can be prevented • Can’t be prevented. – An experimental error- a mistake was made during experiment. – Small group sizes • Less reliable results – Variation (differences) in test subjects that couldn’t be detected before experiment. Models in Science • Can be used to help us understand key and complex concepts • help explain information (data) and make predictions • Models have limitations • Can not always show all details or complexities of a paticular concept Tools in Our Biology Classroom • Microscope – Enables us to view things that cannot be seen with the naked eye – Cells Cumulative Nature of Science Science IS NOT History • Scientific ideas and theories can be altered and or thrown out if new evidence comes about • Scientists publish their work so: – Other scientists can experiment and test their ideas – Their work can continue after they’ve finished – Others can apply their work to more advanced work • Know how Rosalind Franklin’s work contributed to Watson and Crick’s discovery of the structure of DNA! Macromolecules Organic Compounds Substance Monomer Polymer Protein Amino Acids Polypeptide (Protein) Carbohydrates Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars) Polysaccharides (Starches) Nucleic Acids Nucleotides DNA and RNA Lipids Fatty Acids & Glycerol Lipid (Fats, Oils, & Waxes) Cell Membrane Function: A thin flexible barrier that separates the cell from its surroundings Fluid Mosaic Model -Mainly made of LIPIDS (bilayer) & PROTEINS Movement of Molecules Through The Membrane Passive- n o energy required *substances from high to low concentration ex: diffusion, osmosis Active- energy required * substances move from low to high concentration ex: protein pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis Protein Production • Genes (DNA) in the nucleus contain coded instructions to make each type of protein the body needs • mRNA takes a “copy” of these coded instructions from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm (usually attached to rough Endoplasmic Reticulum) • Ribosomes use instructions and link together amino acids together to form proteins (polypeptides) DNA mRNA protein (amino acid sequence) transcription translation Role of: Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus Production and Release (Secretion) of Proteins • Endoplasmic Reticulum • Has RIBOSOMES attached to it (gives rough appearance) • Provides a site for ribosomes to do work! – Protein production (synthesis) • Golgi Apparatus • PACKAGES PROTEINS (inside vesicles) so they can be shipped out of the cell! ER Golgi Vesicles to Cell Membrane Enzymes & Chemical Reactions Enzymes are special proteins produced within our cells Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions – Lower the activation energy needed to get reactions started Lock and Key Theory- Enzymes help substrates (reactants) fit together in the correct fashion so bonds holding reactants together can be broken more easily – Atoms can then rearrange themselves to form products Structure (Shape) & Function of Enzymes – Enzymes rely on their structure (shape)to work properly – Altering pH, temperature, or ionic conditions may alter structure (shape of the enzyme) • Enzymes no longer work Cell Types • Prokaryotic • Small • No Nucleus • Simple • Plant (Eukaryotic) • Rectangular • Cell Wall- rigid outer coating made of cellulose • Chloroplast- site of photosynthesis • Eukaryotic • Larger • Nucleus • Complex- many organelles • Animal (Eukaryotic) • Oval or Irregular • No Cell Wall • No chloroplasts Cell Processes Photosynthesis • Occurs in Chloroplast CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2 Light Dependent Occurss in Thylakoid Membranes Light Independent- Calvin Cycle Occurs in Stroma Chlorophyll Capturees Energy From Sunlight to Power the Reaction ATP and NADPH Power the Reaction Reactant- H2O (Water) Product O2 (Oxygen) Reactant- CO2 Product- C6H12O6 Carbon dioxide Glucose Also ADP + P ATP NADP+ NADPH Also ATP ADP + P NADPH NADP+ Cellular Processes Cellular Respiration • Occurs in Mitochondria • Also called Aerobic Respiration because oxygen is required C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O + Energy • Energy Released is Used to Replenish the Cell’s supply of ATP • Stages Glycolysis Kreb’s Cycle Electron Transport Chain Cell Specialization • Multicellular Organisms- cells have specialized tasks – Example: White Blood Cells Fight Disease, Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen – ALL cells have SAME DNA – Specific cells produce only the proteins they need to do their job within the body • Cells only express (transcribe and translate) the genes for proteins they need to do their tasks. » Example: Red Blood Cells make the protein to carry hemoglobin. No other cells in our body make hemoglobin. DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid GENETIC CODE OF LIFE • Made of Nucleotides – Nucleotide- sugar, phosphate, nitrogen • Nucleotides link together to form double helix or “twisted” ladder • Sides of the ladder are made of alternating deoxyribos (sugar) and phospate groups • Rungs of the ladder are made two Nitrogen bases bonded together Adenine (A) always Thymine (T) Guanine (G) always bonds with Cytosine (C) DNA & Chromosome Structure • DNA Coils and Condenses to form chromosomes • Humans have 46 chromosomes • 23 Homologous (Matching)Pairs • We pass on 1 of each type of chromosome to our offspring during reproduction DNA Replication process in which DNA copies itself • Semiconservative – Each new molecule has • 1 Original Strand • 1 Newly Formed “Complementary” Strand • Follows Rules of Base Pairing – A bonds with T – G bonds with C RNA vs DNA • RNA is single stranded instead of double stranded • RNA has base uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T) • RNA has sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose Protein Synthesis making proteins inside the cell • DNA is the code for producing proteins within our cells • Be able to transcribe DNA gene into mRNA and translate mRNA into the amino acid sequence of a protein TAC CCG GCC ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? DNA gene mRNA sequence? Amino acid sequence of protein? (abreviate) Meiosis • Meiosis ONLY occurs in the reproductive organs of the body (Ovaries of Females, Testes of Males) • Meiosis creates GAMETES or REPRODUCTIVE CELLS (Egg or Ova for Females and Sperm for Males) • Gametes are Haploid (N) which means they half the number of chromosomes as our somatic (regular body) cells which are diploid (2N) Crossing Over During Meiosis • Matching “homologous” chromosomes can exchange genes during Prophase I of Meiosis • This adds genetic variety to offspring DNA &Fertilization Fusion of Sperm and Egg Ova • Sperm and Egg Cell’s Are Haploid (N)-23 chromosomes 23 + 23 = 46 (N) (N) (2N) • Chromosomes combine to form Diploid (2N) zygote (fertilized egg)- 46 chromosomes total – 23 chromosomes from each parent – Offspring inherit half their DNA Genotype vs Phenotype Genotype- Genetic make-up of an organism or type of genes (alleles) they have for a particular trait allele- different forms of a gene Phenotype- The expression or appearance for the trait Genotype FF Ff ff Phenotype Free (detached) earlobes Free (detached) earlobes attached earlobes Mendel’s Law of Dominance B = Brown allele B = Blue allele HOMOZYGOUS- Having two of the SAME alleles or genes for trait. - also referred to as being purebred for the trait BB- homozygous dominant bb- homozygous recessive HETEROZYGOUS- Have two DIFFERENT alleles or genes for a trait - also referred to as being hybrid for the trait Bb- heterozygous • LAW of DOMINANCE- Some alleles are “stronger” than others and will mask the “recessive” allele when in the heterozygous individual EXAMPLE Bb = Brown eyes Mendel’s Law of Segregation • Alleles separate or segregate during the formation of gametes (meiosis) – You pass on only 1 allele (gene) for each trait – Not both Bb B or b meiosis Punnett Squares • Can be used to predict possible genotypes and phenotypes for offspring • Also allow us to predict probabilities F = free ealobes f = attached earlobes 1) Two people are heterozygous (Ff), what are the possible genotypes and phenotypes for offspring? What is the chance for free ealobes? What is the chance for attached earlobes? 2) One person is heterozygous (Ff) and other parent has attached earlobes…? 3) One person is homozygous with free ealobes and other parent is heterozygous…? Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment • The Genes or Alleles You Pass On For One Trait Does Influence the Genes or Alleles You Pass On For a Different Trait • What allele combinations could be found in the reproductive cells of the following examples? H= horned h = no horns 1)hhLL 2)Hhll 3)HhLl L = long hair l = short hair Sex Determination Males-XY Females- XX • Parents contribute 1 sex chromosome each • Female EGGS will always contain an X chromosome • Male SPERM CELLS may contain the X chromosome or the Y chromosome (50/50 chance) • So Males Determine the Sex of Offspring