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Romans:
Quintus Fabius Maximus Cunctator- after Hannibal destroyed agrigculture QFMC
elected dictator. Waged a war of attrition (wearing down or weakening of resistance).
Rome won.
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus- sent to Spain, went against tradition. Won the battle
of Ilipa in 206. Romans invaded Numidia and won that kingdom. Written about by
Polybus. Gained political postions because he had a lot of public support.
Marcus Porcius Cato -(234-149 BC) fist person to write Roman history in Latin, but used
Greek models and styles. Fostered an image of powerful Roman culture over weak,
feminine Greek culture. Known as the Censor. Did not agree with Greek slave teachers.
Influx of Greek culture after the capture of Syracuse dubious feelings about the
adoption of Greek culture.
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus- Elected the Trib. Of Pleb. in 134 BC. Instituted
progressive changes w/ brother (Gaius). Agrarian law proposal regarding public land
holdings. All land reclaimed by state to be redistributed. Bypassed the Senate when
proposing the law (because they would shoot it down…) and went straight to the
Assembly. Assassinatedprecedence of violence in Roman politics. Bill passed… unsure
whether he actually believed in these progressive changes or was just doing it to gain
popular support.
Gaius Sempronius Gracchus - Tribune of the Pleb. in 124. Tried to make social reforms,
specifically about public land just like his brother. Proposed multipoint reform
program…Roman state should buy grain and subsidize it for Roman citizens. Also killed
by opponents. All public land became private land. Graccian period was the first time the
imbalance of power between the Greeks and the Romans was addressed as well as the
agrarian problem.
-*Gracchi moved power away from the Senate and into the hands of the popular
assemblies.
Gaius Marius- Roman general who fought in the Jugurthine War. Was not from an
aristocratic family. Was a “new man”, first one to start the era of new men (“novous
homo”). Enrolled property-less soldiers (property used to be a requirement to be part of
the Roman Army, which was an honor). Becomes consulchange in tradition. Rules
allowing a man to become consule were changing.
Lucius Cornelius Sulla- (138-78 BC) Roman general, politician and consul. Also became
a dictator. Very successful general: defeated Jugurtha. Leading general in the Social
War. Elected consul in 88. Fights against Marius after returning from a successful
campaign against the kingdom of Pontus. Sulla wins the fight against Marius. Created
proscriptions. Named himself dictator. Institutes a series of reforms aimed to enhance the
power of Senatorial oligarchs, thus taking power away from the Trib.o’Plebs when they
were proposing revolutionary bills that threatened traditional order. Voluntarily resigns
in 79 BC… after the war took land from the colonies to give to his soldiers. Began
tradition of obtaining power by gaining support of the soldiers.
Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey)- (106-48 BC) Military general in Sulla’s army. No official
standing, but had military support. Used by Senate to defeat Roman enemies, including
Spartacus. After putting down three consecutive uprisings, demanded to be made consul
(extorted consulship by threatening Senate). Undid Sulla’s social reforms and restored
power to the Trib.o’Plebs & restored the right to propose legislation. who then gave him
several military campaigns after his year as consul. Senate highly disliked him. Dealt
w/pirates blocking grain supply (got imperium to do so, defeated them in 3 months).
Defeats Mithradades. Sets up client kings who become allies to Romans for protection
from the Parthian empire. After military campaigns in east returned to Rome in
62…disbands army but Senate still tried to punish him. First triumvirate: Caesar,
Pompey (brought honor, and army) and Crassus. Caesar worked to get land allotment
for veterans. Marries Caesar’s daughter Julia, when she died broke political ties with
CaesarCivil War from 49-45. Pompey defeated in Spain, Greece and Egypt. Killed in
Egypt after losing to Caesar.
Marcus Tullius Cicero-(106-43 BC) Greatest Roman orator, no military background.
Elected consul in 63. “New founder of Rome”. Discovered Catiline’s plot to overthrow
established power & assassinate him…had him (Catiline) executed and his followers
exiled. Fearful of the growing power of Pompey/Caesar…supported Octavian.
Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline)-attempted to obtain consulship for himself while
Pompey was away. Gained popular support (landless poor and nobles who felt they had
been thwarted from power) because wanted to abolish debts- some feel that he was
pandering to their desires and did not actually believe in this cause. Formulated an
assassination plot against Cicero.
Marcus Licinius Crassus- (115-53 BC) ran a private fire service…not publically avowed.
Took Caesar’s debts. Specialized in buying political support. Became involved in a triple
alliance with Caesar and Pompey (first triumvirate). Eventually became consul with
Pompey as a result of the Luca agreement. Killed in military campaign.
Julius Caesar -(100-44 BC)End of the Roman republic. Did not come from wealth. Used
the populares to his advantageheavy debts from public works projects. Went to Spain
for wealth. Given the title “pontifex maximus”. Overseas colonization for veterans. Took
steps to make Rome one big community instead of colonies. Pompey and Caesar amassed
a lot of power…people became suspicious that they were going to become
dictators…Took military command in Gaul, very successful (Gaelic Wars). Pompey tried
to consolidate power and made an alliance w/optimates to defend the Republic from
Caesar. Forced into Civil War after he crossed the Rubicon. Was victorious- said to have
had a child w/Cleopatra. Established himself as a dictator in 49…was careful not to be
considered divine, but actions became monarchical. Killed by Senate on 15 March
44public uproar. Declared divine posthumously.
-Use of violence and military forces for supportdownfall of the Republic, took power
away from the Senate.
Marcus Antonius- (Mark Antony) [83-30 BC] Consul for the year 44 with Caesar. Gave
Caesar’s killers amnesty and abolished dictatorship. Was not able to keep absolute
power because Caesar had named Octavian his heirtriumvirate w/Oct. and Lepidus.
Showdown between Antony and Octavian over control of the empire…relationship
w/Cleopatra proved to undermine his image w/in Roman empire…Octavian invaded
Egypt and took over Alexandria after Antony/ Cleopatra tried to invade Roman Empire.
Octavian chose to declare war against Cleopatra instead of Antony so it wouldn’t look
like a civil war. Antony committed suicide.
Roman Emperors:
Augustus- (Octavian). Nephew of Caesar and appointed his heir before his death.
Overthrew Antony and seized power for himself. In total power after the death of Antony.
Brought Ptolemaic reign in Egypt to an end. Incorporated Hellenistic kingdom into
Rome. Legal authority decided- did not want to be a dictator. Transferred power back to
Senate (symbolically, not actually). Given the title “Augustus” by the Senate. Conquest
and victory. Restored temples. Wildly popular. Called “Pater Patriae” (Father of the
Fatherland)…reflects supremacy not only in Rome but also in Italy.
Tiberius- first Roman Emperor (reigned 14-37 AD). Dynastic linkage through Augustus
(T married A’s daughter, Julia). Given the care, administration and management of the
empire (“cura”) as well as status and position (“statio”). Adopted by Augustus. Livia’s
stepson. Imperium poconsulare maius, status that equaled Augustus. Wrote letters to the
generals of the Roman armies. Made Praetorian Guard swear an oath of loyalty to him.
Convenes Senate twice: first time dealing w/burial of Augustus and deification, second
about his status. “Cura” and “Statio” given to him dynastically.
Nero- (reigned 54-68 AD) Used Christians as a scapegoat for a massive fire that
practically destroyed Rome (first example of persecution). Dynasty ended with his death
(suicide after started to lose support from Senate, provincial governors and the
praetorian guard after a revolt in Gaul). After his death empire went into a Civil
War…multiple men declared emperor w/P.Guard swearing their allegiance to several
different ones simultaneously.
Vespasian- (69-79 AD) declared emperor by the eastern provinces in the summer of 69.
Civil war against Vitellius, but Vespasian had control of the grain supply…Won and
became emperor.
Hadrian- (117-138 AD) Travelled more than his predecessors...had extensive military
training, intellectual but also had prejudices: loved the Greeks, hated the Jews
(inadventendly caused the Bar Kochba Revolt b/c tried to have Greek temples built in
Judaea). First Roman emperor to be bearded, break from tradition. Called a halt to
imperial expansion and built a defensive wall (in England) to protect the empire from
invaders. Localized military recruitmentloyalty for the area being defended.
Commodus- ruled from 180-192 AD. Succeeded his father, Marcus Aurelius. Made coemperor with his father. Was not a good emperor. Tried to deify himself. Disliked greatly,
assassinated.
Diocletian- (284-305 AD) Soldier from the Balkans, no Senatorial background. Brought
stability to the empire and ended the cycle of civil war. Created the tetrarch: two senior
emperors and two junior emperors (appointed as successors to the senior emperors),
helped with the maintenance of the empire (Each lived in area of sovereignty w/unique
capital). Rome was not one of the capitals. Voluntary abdicated the throne, thus ensuring
the stability of Tetrarchy. Bureaucratic.
Constantine- (305-337 AD) Sole ruler from 324-337 [as a result of more civil wars]
Founded a new ruling dynasty. First Christian Emperor, baptized on death bed. Made
Christianity legal within the Empire. From the Balkans. Overhauled the empire. New
capital in Constantinople. Conversion believed to have occurred during battle (Battle of
Milvian Bridge in 312 AD). Question if his faith was sincere.
Non-Romans:
*Pyrrhus- supported Southern Italy in Pyrric Wars. Elephants. Hellenistic army. Battle of
Pericleadefeat for Rome.
Hannibal- Commander who led forces against Roman empire in the Carthaginian War.
Crossed the Alps…WITH ELEPHANTS!! FUCK YEAH! Died in 229 BC . Family had a
deep seeded hate of Rome. Led army against Rome in Second Punic War. Extremely
successful against the Romans. Defeated at the Battle of Zama due to sheer numbers.
Rome also fought a war of attrition and allowed him to get no resources.
*Philip V- king of Macedon (221-179 BC). Known for an unsuccessful struggle with
Rome when it was an emerging power. Allied with Hannibal. Rome’s excuse for waging
war against Macedonians was that it was protecting the liberty of the Greeks against
Macedonian expansionGreek dependency on Rome.
*Massinissa- Romans were able to conquer Numidia because he disliked the
Carthaginians. First king of Numidia. Roman ally in the battle of Zama.
*Antiochus III- allied with Philip. Rome declared war on him in 92 BC. Roman naval
and land victory.
Cleopatra- Queen of Egypt. Shared with her brother at first…he was killed and she took
full control. Had love affairs with both Caesar and Mark Antony, sons with each.
Committed suicide by having an asp bite her.
Zenobia- Queen of the Palmyrene Empire. Led a revolt against the Roman Empire.
Husband was Odenathus, who defeated the Sassanids. Unprecedented because she was
the first woman to take control and revolt against the Roman Empire.
Battles:
Battle of Cannae- (216 BC) Hannibal defeats Rome. Destroys the agriculture of Italy,
some colonies join Hannibal. Rome begins a war of attrition against Hannibal. Rome
elected QFMC.
Battle of Zama- (202 BC) defeat of Hannibal. Took place in northern Africa. One of the
keys to Roman success was Scipio’s use of cavalry.
Battle of Cynoscephalae- Romans and Macedonians (197 BC). Roman victory due to
their speed and mobility. Annexed no territory and had peace talks w/Philip. Used victory
to send message to the Sessanid king.
Battle of Pydna- Roman victory. 168 BC during the Third Macedonian War.
Battle of Actium- Octavian declared war against Cleopatra. Naval battle. A & Cleo
flee…kill themselves.
Battle of Milvian Bridge- Constantine’s conversion in 312 AD. Saw a cross in the sun.
Wars, Treaties, Revolts:
*First, Second and Third Punic Wars- First: (264-241 BC) Rome built up navy and
defeated Carthaginian king Hamilcar. Ceded Sicily to Rome. Second: (218-202 BC) led
by Hannibal, son of Hamilcar. Roman army under the command of Scipio Hannibal was
quite successful for some time, but then became trapped in Southern Italy. Scipio drew
Hannibal out of Italy by moving the campaign to Africa, where Carthaginian forces were
defeated at the battle of Zama. Third:
*Treaty of the Ebro- 226 BC.
*Jugurthine War- (112-106) Between Jugurtha, Numidian king, and Roman general
Gauis Marius. Rome won.
Social War- (91-88 BC) Came from the term “socii”, which means allies. Italians against
the Romans. Italians were will organized: had an army, minted coins and spread
propaganda. Then, Roman law changed to grant citizenship to any city that ceased
fightingend of war. Postulated that Italy wanted citizenship or independence. Italians
felt that they were not benefitting from the wars that they were fighting for Rome. Roman
forces led by Sulla.
Bar Kochba Revolt- (131-136 AD) Rebellion of Jewish population against Rome. Led by
Simeon. Lasted for 5 years. Started after Hadrian ordered construction of the Temple of
Jupiter in Judaea. Crushed, but many Romans lost their lives.
Texts:
Commentariolum Petitionis
Philippics
Res Gestae Divi Augusti
Technical Terms:
Civitas sine suffragio-“citizenship without the vote”. Level of citizenship in the Republic
which did NOT guaranteed the right to vote in popular assemblies. Awarded to the
defeated people outside Latium. (after the Latin War). These people had all of the
responsibilities of Roman citizens, but could not vote. Also, had to supply the Roman
army with soldiers.
Imperium – power. Referred to as power/support of the gods bestowed upon a popular
leader. A man with imperium had authority to apply the law within the scope of his
magistrate (power cannot be questioned…cannot be prosecuted).
Latifundium- large tracts of public land purchased by nobles in order to make huge
private estates. Fostered the slave trade because the large farms needed a lot of workers
to be successful.
Ager publicus- public land. Land owned by the state that is available for distribution to
citizens. Limit on the amount available for each citizen (500 units), but that law was often
disregarded. Increased division in wealth between rich and poor. Also fueled because
land was a prerequisite to some political positions. Also used by Sulla for his
veterans…did not know how to farm the land. (Pompey gave is veterans land in the
colonies)
Tributum- Roman tax.
Senatus consultum ultimum- “final decree of the Senate”. Final Act. Decree of the
Senate passed in times of emergencies. Does not define the limits of the powers. Used to
protect the state.
Imperium proconsulare maius - higher degree of imperium over another magistrate.
Power like that of the consul. “Greater proconsular power”. Gave the man greater
power over authority over other proconsuls. Unlike traditional proconsular power it did
not lapse when he entered the city of Rome.
Tribunicia potestas- tributionary power to propose or veto legislation before the Senate.
Offices, Institutions:
Consul- highest civil and military magistrates. Head of the government, control of
military. Two elected annually. Usually went on to govern the province after their year
ended. Stopped once the empire began and there was only one head of state…
Tribune of the plebs- ten elected officials. Had the right to convene and propose
legislation at the Plebian Councils. Could also summon the Senate. Only had power
within the city of Rome.
Dictator- designed as a post to be held temporarily during an emergency. Powers include
ability to overrule all other magistrates and to be immune from tribunal vetoes.
Abolished by Mark Antony after Caesar’s death.
Praetorian guard- bodyguards used by the Roman Emperors. Military unit allowed to act
within the city of Rome. Created by Augustus. Would pledge their loyalty to the emperor,
but would kill him if they supported someone else.
Tetrarchy- created under Diocletian. First appointed another senior (“Augustus”)
emperor and then two junior (“Caesar”) emperors. Each emperor had his own capital
(other than Rome) that was situated close to the frontier. Had equal authority. Reduced
the functional size of the Empire. Cohesion and loyalty, but relatively short lived. All four
rulers were close (statue of the four men embracing…)
Non-Roman Peoples:
Etruscans- major competitor during 800-500 BC. Occupied northern Italy. Called
themselves “resanna”,while Rome called them “etruscy”. Unified empire with common
culture and religion and language. Economic power w/ metals. Pan-Mediterranean
trading network.
Parthinans- Empire centralized Imperial structure. Pompey created a shield against the
Parthinans with petty kings/ satellite colonies. Early 60s BC.
Sassanids- Empire in Persia. No unified front to counterattack them because the Roman
Empire was in flux. Finally defeated by a private army controlled by an independent
ruler: Odenathus.
Goths- Germanic tribal group. Possibly from the North Sea. Aggressive during the 3rd
century along the Danube front of the Roman Empire. Larger, well armed and better
organized than other groups.
-** because the Roman Empire was fighting against the Sassanids and Goths
concurrently it put strain on the army, who did not want to leave regional bases to
fight…**
Miscellaneous:
Twelve Tables- ancient legislation that stood at the foundation of Roman law. Formed
the centerpiece of the constitution of the Roman Republic. Recounted by Livy. Similar to
the bill of rights.
Aerarium militare- Augustus donated money to the military in order for them to start
civilian lives. Took money out of his own account…gave land to the veterans.
Contio- where proposals were debated before put up for vote.
Pax decorum- Good graces of the gods.
Salutatio- “Morning Visit”. Aristocrats greeted by clients at his house in the morning.
The more people  more power/prestige.
Proscriptions- declarations of Roman citizens who are to be outlawed, as decided by
Sulla. Made it legal for anyone to kill someone on this list. Generated revenue (state
could absorb their estate) and got rid of Sulla’s political enemies.
Mos maiorium- custom of the fathers/anestors. Core concept of Roman traditionalism.
Unwritten code from where the Romans derived their societal norms.
Hadrian’s Wall- defensive wall built in England. Hadrian wanted to separate the
Romans from barbarians and to create a fixed, static boundary that would bring an end
to imperial expansion. Wanted to fortify and solidify the empire.
Antonine Plague
Philhellenism- love of Greek culture.
Constitutio Antoniniana
Constantinople- new capital of the Roman Empire under Constantine. “New Rome”. Was
the seat of the Byzantine Empire for 1000 yrs.
Edict of Milan- (313 AD) Declared religious toleration within the Empire.
Arian Heresy- question of orthodoxy. Relationship between God the father and God the
son. Begun by a priest from Alexandria who did not believe that the Son could be fully
divine as well…less than God the father.
Council of Nicaea- assembled by Constantine in 325 AD to discuss the problems posed
by the Arian Heresy and to consolidate doctrine. First Ecumenical Council. Christ was
declared of the same substance as God the father…Nicene Creed. Established the
precedent that the Roman Empire would be involved w/in the Church.
Groups/Status Designations:
Patricians- aristocratic ruling class.
Plebians
Optimates-Whished to uphold traditional senatorial authority against the demands of the
assemblies. Aristocratic.
Populares- policies and politicians who appealed to the mass of Roman citizens. Valued
rights and suspicious of the Senate. Appealed to popular concerns. “Those pandering to
the people”
Novus homo- “New Man”. Men involved in the government who were not from Patrician
or aristocratic/wealthy families. Ex.) Gaius Marius.
Colonus
Senators
Equestrians
~*~~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~
- in the beginning it was Rome’s goal to gain control and perpetuate it by building up
dependent allies
- Carthage was Rome’s long term enemy
*wealthy and in a powerful position on the Northern coast of Africa
*lots of silver and other precious metals
-Roman allies in Italy were treated as second-class citizens. They were expected to
provide troops and fight for Rome in war, yet they were not allowed citizenship.
-Roman army supported by a tax levied on the citizens.
-Claudius appointed emperor by the P. Guard after they killed Caligula, who was
Tiberius’ heir.
*conquered Britain to gain support from the people/the Senate.
-ClaudiusNeroCivilWar, multiple emperorsVespasianDomitianTrajan (The
model emperor)HadrianMarcus AureliusCommodus
-Rome did not economically depend on slaves for its survival (for they could cheaply
employ the poor as laborers), but instead needed slaves to ensure social hierarchy.