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Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning The major theorists for the development of operant conditioning are: • Edward Thorndike • John Watson • B.F. Skinner Operant Conditioning • Operant conditioning investigates the influence of consequences on subsequent behavior. • Operant conditioning investigates the learning of voluntary responses. • It was the dominant school in American psychology from the 1930s through the 1950s. Operant Conditioning • Where classical conditioning illustrates S-->R learning, operant conditioning is often viewed as R->S learning • It is the consequence that follows the response that influences whether the response is likely or unlikely to occur again. Operant Conditioning • The three-term model of operant conditioning (S-> R -->S) incorporates the concept that responses cannot occur without an environmental event (e.g., an antecedent stimulus) preceding it. • While the antecedent stimulus in operant conditioning does not ELICIT or CAUSE the response (as it does in classical conditioning), it can influence its occurance. Operant Conditioning • When the antecedent does influence the likelihood of a response occurring, it is technically called a discriminative stimulus. • It is the stimulus that follows a voluntary response (i.e., the response's consequence) that changes the probability of whether the response is likely or unlikely to occur again. Operant Conditioning • There are two types of consequences: – positive (sometimes called pleasant) – negative (sometimes called aversive) Operant Conditioning • Two actions can be taken with these stimuli: – they can be ADDED to the learner’s environment. – they can be SUBRACTED from the learner’s environment. • If adding or subtracting the stimulus results in a change in the probability that the response will occur again, the stimulus is considered a CONSEQUENCE. • Otherwise the stimulus is considered a NEUTRAL stimulus. Operant Conditioning • There are 4 major techniques or methods used in operant conditioning. • They result from combining: – the two major purposes of operant conditioning (increasing or decreasing the probability that a specific behavior will occur in the future), – the types of stimuli used (positive/pleasant or negative/aversive), and – the action taken (adding or removing the stimulus). Operant Conditioning Outcomes of Conditioning Stimulus Increase Behavior Decrease Behavior Positive/ pleasant Add Positive Reinforcement Subtract Response Cost Negative/A versive Subtract Negative Reinforcement Add Punishment Schedules of consequences Stimuli are presented in the environment according to a schedule of which there are two basic categories: • Continuous • Intermittent Schedules of consequences Continuous reinforcement simply means that the behavior is followed by a consequence each time it occurs. • Excellent for getting a new behavior started. • Behavior stops quickly when reinforcement stops. • Is the schedule of choice for punishment and response cost. Schedules of consequences Intermittent schedules are based either on the • passage of time OR • number of correct responses Schedules of consequences The consequence can be delivered based on • a fixed amount of time or number of correct responses OR • a slightly different amount of time or number of responses that vary around a particular number Schedules of consequences This results in an four classes of intermittent schedules. Fixed Interval • The first correct response after a set amount of time has passed is reinforced (i.e., a consequence is delivered). • The time period required is always the same. • Example: Spelling test every Friday. Schedules of consequences Pattern of behavior for fixed interval schedule Schedules of consequences Variable Interval • The first correct response after a set amount of time has passed is reinforced (i.e., a consequence is delivered). • After the reinforcement, a new time period (shorter or longer) is set with the average equaling a specific number over a sum total of trials. • Example: Pop quiz Schedules of consequences Pattern of behavior for variable interval schedule Schedules of consequences Fixed Ratio • A reinforcer is given after a specified number of correct responses. This schedule is best for learning a new behavior. • The number of correct responses required for reinforcement remains the same. • Example: Ten math problems for homework Schedules of consequences Pattern of behavior for fixed ratio schedule Schedules of consequences Variable Ratio •A reinforcer is given after a set number of correct responses. • After reinforcement the number of correct responses necessary for reinforcement changes. This schedule is best for maintaining behavior. • Example: A student raises his hand to be called on. Schedules of consequences Pattern of behavior for variable ratio schedule Premack Principle • The Premack Principle, often called "grandma's rule," states that a high-frequency activity can be used to reinforce low-frequency behavior. • Access to the preferred activity is contingent on completing the low-frequency, non-preferred behavior.