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Cognitive Psychology Xiaolin Zhou Department of Psychology Peking University Beijing, China [email protected] 周晓林博士 • 北京大学脑科学与认知科学中心主任 • 中国心理学会普通心理学与实验心理学 专业委员会主任 • 心理学系发展与教育心理学教研室主任 • 东南大学、中山大学、北京师范大学等 学校兼职教授 研究生的论文 实验室研究方向 • 语言加工、注意与执行控制、以及社会 神经科学。 • 力图以多种研究手段、从行为和神经机 制两个层面上阐述人类认知和社会活动 的本质 • 当前的研究手段包括计算机行为实验, 神经心理学测验,脑电和核磁共振 (fMRI)脑功能成像。 • Yu, R., & Zhou, X. (in press). To bet or not to bet? The Ne/ERN associated with risk taking choices. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. • Yue, Z., Zhang, M., & Zhou, X. (2008). Updating verbal and visuospatial working memory: Are the processes parallel? Chinese Science Bulletin, 53, 2175-2185. • Ye, Z., & Zhou, X. (2008). Involvement of cognitive control in sentence comprehension: Evidence from ERPs. Brain Research, 1203, 103-115. • Zhang, X., Li, T., & Zhou, X. (2008). Brain responses to facial expressions by adults with different attachmentorientations. Neuroreport, 19, 437-441. • Wei, P., Müller, H., Lü, J., & Zhou, X. (2008). Searching for two feature singletons in the visual scene: The localized attentional interference effect. Experimental Brain Research, 185, 175-188. Structure of this lecture • Purpose and plan of the Course • An Overview of the Course • What is Cognitive Psychology • 重新审视基因、环境对行为的影响 • Science,Volume 298, Number 5591, Issue of 4 Oct 2002, pp. 71- – A Brief History of the Cognitive Approach – The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology – Fields Related to Cognitive Psychology • Research Method – cognitive neuroscience methods • Key Themes of Cognitive Psychology 1 Plan and Requirements of the Course Purpose of the Course • What are the main issues and various fields of study in cognitive psychology • What methods and techniques do cognitive psychologists use • How should experimental research be conducted • Practical training in research – searching and reading papers – planning experiments – writing up research report • Attending lectures, reading papers, and writing reports (50%) – 5 papers (each having at least 10 related references, at least 5 pages) – 3 tests, one after “attention”, one after “imagery”, and one after “language” • Designing an experiment (20%) – Original, publishable • Attending final examination (30%) Research Project Organization and Arrangement • Course Coordinator – a bridge between the lecturer and students – responsible for a variety of matters such as buying reference books and creating a mailing list • Two supervisors –李想 ([email protected]) –李晓倩 ([email protected]) • Find a general field you want to be in • Search for all the relevant papers published and making a detailed list • Read those papers, and write a review • Find one or two review papers about the general field • identify a specific question you want to ask • design experiment(s) and run subjects • write up the paper (and send it out for publication) Research Project Schedule • By 25 October: searching a list of papers published in English, talk with your supervisor;Report the progress of reading • By 15 November: find a project and design the experiment(s) • By 10 January, 2007: hand in your report Schedule of the Course • • • • • • • • Introduction (1 lecture) Perception (2-3 lectures) Attention and Consciousness (2-3 lectures) Memory and Knowledge Representation (3 -4 lectures) Imagery (1 lecture) language Processing (3-4 lectures) Problem Solving and Creativity (1 lectures) Reasoning and Decision Making (1 lectures) 2 An Overview of the Course (1) • Introduction – what are cognition, cognitive psychology, and cognitive approach – the history of cognitive psychology – research methods in cognitive psychology – key issues and and fields within cognitive psychology Schedule of the Course (2) • Perception – how does the human mind perceive what the senses receive – how does the human mind distinctively achieve the perception of forms and patterns – does the perception of human faces have a special mechanism Figure or Ground? Illusions in Visual Perception Hermann Grid • At other times, we perceive what cannot be there 3 Schedule of the Course (3) • Attention and Consciousness – what are the basic processes of the mind that govern how information enters our minds, our awareness, and our highlevel processes of information processing Asymmetries in Visual Search Patients with Brain Damage Inhibitory Effect of Feature Singleton 4 Types of Memory Schedule of the Course (4) Prospective • Memory – how are different kinds of information represented in the memory – how do we move information into memory, keep it there, and retrieve it from memory when needed – how do we mentally represent information in our mind – how do we manipulate and operate on knowledge Retrospective LTM STM Implicit Priming Explicit Skills Semantic Episodic Conditioning Generation Verification Recogntion Recall Schedule of the Course (5) • Imagery – whether mental images truly resemble perceptual images – how do we form and use cognitive maps for physical settings Schedule of the Course (6) • Language Processing – how do we derive and produce meaning through language – how do we acquire language – how does our use of language interact with our ways of thinking – how does our social world interact with our use of language 5 Can Animals Speak? signing chimps, discerning parrots, & grammatical bonobos Schedule of the Course (7) • Problem Solving and Creativity – how do we solve problems – what processes aid and impede use in reaching solutions to problems – why are some of use more creative than others – how do we become and remain creative What are characteristics of language? Structured Arbitrary Generative Dynamic Tower of London • Match start configuration to the goal configuration in the minimum number of moves • Constraints – the three bins hold three balls, two balls and one ball, respectively – can move only the top-most balls to a different bin Schedule of the Course (8) • Reasoning and Decision Making – how do we reach important decisions – how do we draw reasonable conclusions from the information we have available – why and how do we often making inappropriate decisions and reach inaccurate conclusions • Jim is short, slim, and likes to read poetry. Is Jim more likely to be a classics professor at an university or a truck driver? 6 Main Journals Main Reference Books • Hunt & Ellis, 《认知心理学基础》, 人民邮电出版社(影印版) • Eysenck & Keane, 高定国翻译,《认 知心理学》,华东师大出版社 • 《与“众”不同的心理学》,中国轻工业 出版社 • • • • • • Trends in Cognitive Science Nature Review Neuroscience Current Opinions in Neurobiology Current Opinions in Psychology Nature,Science Many Other Journals on the internet What is Cognitive Psychology Don’t Panic!!! • Cognition (mental activity) – involves the acquisition, storage, transformation, and use of knowledge • Cognitive Psychology – a synonym for the word cognition – OR a particular theoretical approach to psychology • Cognitive Approach – a theoretical orientation that emphasizes mental structure and processes Why Study Cognitive Psychology (1) • Cognition occupies a major portion of the study of human psychology • Cognitive approach has widespread influence on other areas of psychology • Cognitive psychology has also influenced interdisciplinary areas • Cognitive psychology is related to your own personal life Why Study Cognitive Psychology (2) • The study of cognition has become essential not only for those interested in COGNITIVE SCIENCE, in general, and COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, in particular, but for almost all those with an interest in the MIND. • (The Nature of Cognition, edited by Robert J. Sternberg, 1999) 7 Cognition plays a central role in • SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (the study of social cognition) • DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (the study of cognitive development) • CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY (the study and implementation of cognitive therapy) • EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY (the study of cognition in the classroom) • COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE (the study of the cognitive processes related to brain functioning) • And practically every other area of psychology as well. A Brief History of the Cognitive Approach (2) • Plato and Aristotle disagreed not only about what is truth but also about how to find truth – To Plato, observations of imperfect, concrete objects and actions would mislead us and take us away from truth. The route to knowledge is through logical analysis – To Aristotle, observations of the external world were only the means to arrive at truth A Brief History of the Cognitive Approach (1) • Philosophical Antecedents – Rationalism vs. Empiricism – Knowledge and experience • Plato: reality resides not in the concrete objects we perceive through our body’s senses, but in the abstract forms that these objects represent, i.e., in the abstract ideas of the objects that exist in our mind. • Aristotle: reality lies only in the concrete world of objects that our bodies sense. A Brief History of the Cognitive Approach (3) • Seventeenth century – Rene Descartes vs. John Locke – whether knowledge is innate or is passively acquired through experience • Eighteenth century – Immanuel Kant – both rationalism and empiricism have their places and must work together in the quest for truth A Brief History of the Cognitive Approach (4) • Psychological Antecedents – should we gain an understanding of the human mind by studying its structure or by studying its functions? • Structuralism – to understand the structure of the mind and its perceptions through analyzing those perceptions into their constituent components • Mind = machine? – Wilhelm Wundt, Titchener: the optimal method was to study sensory experience though introspection 8 A Brief History of the Cognitive Approach (5) • Functionalism – to study the processes of how and why the mind works as it does, rather than to study the structural contents and elements of the mind – to use whichever methods best answering given questions. • This leads to pragmatism • William James, John Dewey A Brief History of the Cognitive Approach (7) • From Associationism to Behaviorism – Thorndike: voluntary responses to stimuli – Ivan Pavlov: involuntary responses (classically conditional learning) • Behaviorism focuses entirely on the association between the environment and an observable behavior. It has no use for internal mental contents or mechanisms – John Watson, B. F. Skinner – Tolman (goal, plan), Bandura (social learning) The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology (1) • Psychobiology • Karl Lashley (a former student of Watson) – how the organization of the brain governs human activity – to consider the brain as an active, dynamic organizer of behavior • Donald Hebb – how the structure of neural connections in the brain changes as a result of learning – a mental representation of some external event is represented by a hierarchical structure of multiple cell assemblies A Brief History of the Cognitive Approach (6) • Associationism – to study how events or ideas can become associated with one another in the mind, to result in a form of learning – Hermann Ebbinghaus, Edward Thorndike – law of effect (1905): A stimulus will tend to produce a certain response over time if an organism is rewarded for that response. A Brief History of the Cognitive Approach (8) • Gestalt Psychology – psychological phenomena is best viewed as organized, structured wholes. – A reaction not only against the behaviorism, but also against structuralism – “the whole differs from the sum of its parts” – profound influence on the study of the perception of forms and the study of insight, an aspect of problem solving The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology (2) • Linguistics • Noam Chomsky – the creative potential of language defies behaviorist notion that we learn language by reinforcement – language understanding is constrained not so much by what have heard, but by an innate language acquisition device (LAD) – it is the structure of the mind, rather than the structure of environmental contingencies, that guides language acquisition 9 The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology (3) • Computer and Communication Sciences – Following many issues faced in computer information processing, psychologists began to talk about information codes, about limitation in processing capacity, and about the processing either serially or in parallel The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology (5) • Information-processing Approach – a mental process can best be understood by comparing it with the operation of a computer – a mental process can be interpreted as information processing through the system in a serious of stages, from stimuli to responses – a number of simple mental operations can be grouped together to produce complex cognitive behavior Fields Related to Cognitive Psychology (1) • Cognitive Science – includes psychology, philosophy, linguistics, anthropology, artificial intelligence, and neuroscience – tries to answer questions about the mind. – examines the nature of knowledge, its components, its development, and its use. – No consensus yet about either its content or its methods The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology (4) • Artificial Intelligence – to construct systems that show intelligence, and particularly, the intelligent processing of information – more interested in maximizing information processing efficiency, rather than in simulating human intelligence and how humans solve problems – Herbert Simon and Allen Newell The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology (6) • The Born of Cognitive Psychology in 1956 (11 September) – a symposium at MIT – many books and articles on a variety of mental processes were published • Ulric Neisser – Cognitive Psychology (1967) Fields Related to Cognitive Psychology (2) • Cognitive Neuroscience – examines how the structure and function of the brain explain cognitive processes – began to flourish at the end of 1980s, when cognitive psychologists and neuroscientists began to use brain-imaging techniques to record brain activity during cognitive tasks – it is a challenge to build explanatory bridge between the level of the neuron and the level of cognitive concept 10 Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology (1) • Goals of research – data gathering, – data analysis, – theory development, – hypothesis formulation, – hypothesis testing, – application to settings outside the research environment Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology (3) • Laboratory or controlled experiments – to control as many aspects of the experimental situation as possible – to manipulate the independent variable, controlling for the effects of irrelevant variables, and to observe the effects on the dependent variable – to establish a likely causal link between the given independent variables and the depedent variables Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology (2) • Self report, case studies, and naturalistic observation – particularly useful for the formation of hypotheses – Ecological validity Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology (4) • Computer Simulation • Computer programs must be detailed, precise, unambiguous, and logical • If the computer and the human show equivalent performance on a particular task, then we can speculate that the program represents an appropriate theory for describing the human‘s mental operations Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology (5) • Psychobiological or Cognitive neuroscience Research – to investigate the relationship between cognitive performance and cerebral events and structures\ • Various methods – Brain lesion – Functional imaging – Single cell recording – Genetic research 11 Brain as an Information Processing Device Brain functions in terms of • Computational theory – about the goal of the information transformation process and the strategy by which the goal is achieved • Codes and algorithms – the nature of the codes and the algorithms by which the transformation from one code to another is achieved • Neurophysiological implementation – the implementation of the process in terms of interactions between neurons Key Themes of Cognitive Psychology (1) Key Themes of Cognitive Psychology (2) Nature vs. nurture Rationalism vs. empiricism Structures vs. processes Domain generality vs. domain specificity • Validity of causal inferences vs. ecological validity • Applied vs. basic research • Biological vs. behavioral methods • The cognitive processes are active, rather than passive • The cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate • The cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information • The cognitive processes are interrelated with one other; they do not operate in isolation • • • • Key Themes of Cognitive Psychology (3) • Many cognitive process rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing – bottom-up processing stresses the importance of information from the stimuli – top-down processing stresses the influence of concepts, expectations, and memory upon the cognitive processes Questions for This Lecture • What is cognitive psychology • How did cognitive psychology develop from psychology • How have other disciplines contributed to the development of theory and research in cognitive psychology • What methods doe cognitive psychologists use in research • What are the current issues and various fields of study within cognitive psychology 12 Keep on Searching and REsearching Reading List • 《认知心理学基础》第一章 • 《21世纪的心理科学与脑科学》,北京大学出 版社,2002。 • The cognitive revolution: a historical perspective Trends in Cognitive Sciences Volume: 7, Issue: 3, March, 2003, pp. 141-144 Miller, George A. • Neural modeling, functional brain imaging, and cognition Trends in Cognitive Sciences Volume: 3, Issue: 3, March, 1999, pp. 9198 Horwitz, Barry; Tagamets, M-A.; McIntosh, Anthony Randal 13