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UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
Maiduguri, Nigeria
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING
SOCIAL SCIENCES
SOC 105:
UNIT: 3
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
SOC 105:
Published
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
3 units
2005©
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any
form, by mimeograph or any other means without prior permission in
writing from the University of Maiduguri.
This text forms part of the learning package for the academic
programme of the Centre for Distance Learning, University of
Maiduguri.
Further enquiries should be directed to the:
Coordinator
Centre for Distance Learning
University of Maiduguri
P. M. B. 1069
Maiduguri, Nigeria.
This text is being published by the authority of the Senate, University
of Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria.
ISBN:
978-8133-41-X
ii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
SOC 105:
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
3 units
PREFACE
This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can do
most of the study on their own. The structure of the study unit is
different from that of conventional textbook. The course writers have
made efforts to make the study material rich enough but learners need
to do some extra reading for further enrichment of the knowledge
required.
The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities and
where feasible, use the Internet. References are provided to guide the
selection of reading materials required.
The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course writers
and editors for making this possible. Their efforts will no doubt help
in improving access to University education.
Professor J. D. Amin
Vice-Chancellor
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
SOC 105:
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
3 units
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to
simplify your study. In each topic of the unit, we have introduction,
objectives, in-text, summary and self-assessment exercise.
The study unit should be 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will be
available at designated contact centers for tutorial. The center expects
you to plan your work well. Should you wish to read further you could
supplement the study with more information from the list of
references and suggested readings available in the study unit.
PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS
1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES)
This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can help
you to assess whether or not you have actually studied and understood
the topic. Solutions to the exercises are provided at the end of the
study unit for you to assess yourself.
2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of
examination type questions for you to answer and send to the center.
You are expected to work on your own in responding to the
assignments. The TMA forms part of your continuous assessment
(C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you. In addition,
you will also write an end of Semester Examination, which will be
added to your TMA scores.
Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the
different units of your study.
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
SOC 105:
3 units
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
It is often said that every human being is a “psychologist”
in the sense that we are all interested in human behaviour.
However, there are differences between armchair psychologists
and scientific psychologists. Many people have misconceptions
about the work of psychologists whom they view with suspicion
and even hostility. This course intends to illuminate these and
other issues by properly explaining the meaning and nature of
psychology and what psychologists do. While the aim is not to
make psychologists of the course participants it is hoped that at
the end of the course they will appreciate the discipline and
what is stands for.
Topic 1 contains a definition and the objectives of the
discipline while Topic two discusses the scientific status of, as
well as the methods employed in study psychology. Topic three
contains a short history of psychology while topic four and five
contains the major schools and areas of specialization in
psychology respectively. In topic six the biological basis of
human behaviour particularly the parts and functions of the
brain
are
discussed.
Learning
processes,
forgetting
and
remembering are very important issues in psychology. These
topics are discussed in topics seven to12. Human motivation and
emotions are contained in topics 13 and 14 respectively.
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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
SOC 105:
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
UNIT: 3
T A B L E O F C O N T E N TS
PAGES
PREFACE
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HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
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INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
TOPIC:
1
DEFINITION AND USES OF PSYCHOLOGY
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PSYCHOLOGY AS A BEHAVIOURAL
SCIENCE
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A SHORT HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
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MAJOR SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY
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AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION AND USES OF
PSYCHOLOGY
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THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR
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LEANING -
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
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OPERANT OR INSTRUMENTAL
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OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
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FORGETTING OF LEANED MATERIALS51
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MEMORY (REMEBERING LEARNT
CONDITIONING -
MATERIAL)
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HUMAN MOTIVATION
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14
HUMAN EMOTIONS
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SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
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TOPIC 1:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
1.0
DEFINITION AND USES OF PSYCHOLOGY
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1.1
INTRODUCTION
1.2
OBJECTIVES
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IN-TEXT
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1.3.1 DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY
1.3.2 AIMS OF SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY
1.4
SUMMARY -
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SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
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1.6
REFERENCE
1.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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1.1
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC: DEFINITION AND USES OF PSYCHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Psychology is very essential to human development. Most
people believe that we are all psychologists. What is Psychology
and what are the objectives of scientific psychology? What is the
difference between commonsensical/arm chair psychology and
scientific psychology? This section deals with these and other
issues.
1.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic you should be able to:
i.
Explain the difference between arm chair psychology
and scientific psychology;
ii.
Explain the various objectives and uses of psychology
1.3
IN-TEXT
1.3.1 DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is the scientific study of human and animal
behavior. By behavior is meant the mental, conscious and
unconscious and muscular activities, such as thinking, running,
fighting. Behavior thus includes seen and unseen, physical and
non physical processes. Psychology is concerned with processes
occurring within the individual as well as the connections
between mind and body. It is also concerned with human and
animal development. The subject includes many different areas
and applications such as the role of instinct, heredity,
environment and culture, processes of sensation and perception,
learning, memory, emotion and motivation, thought, intelligence
and language development.
To some extent every human being is a “psychologist”. By
this we mean conventional psychology or what is more
appropriately referred to as conventional wisdom. We are all
interested in the behavior of other family members, our friends,
and other human beings that we come into contact with. We
attribute motives to their behaviors and try to predict what they
will do next. But there is a difference between arm chair
psychology and scientific psychology. Conventional psychology
often uses short cut methods to arrive at explanations. But
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Scientific Psychology is systematic because it is structured, has
a methodology, and is empirical (study based on observation and
data).
The basic questions in Psychology are: How do humans and
animals act? How do they know? How do they interact with each
other? How do they develop? How do they differ among
themselves?
1.3.2 AIMS OF SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY
Scientific psychology is concerned with the explanation,
prediction and control of behavior.
Explanation, e.g. sex differences in aggression on the basis
of testosterone or other differences in anatomy, early
experiences, learning, social pressures etc.
Prediction e.g that noise interferes with performance; that
viewing television violence leads to aggressive behavior
Control, helping people overcome their problems, for
example through guidance and counseling
1.4
SUMMARY
We started this module with the definition of psychology,
its concerns and aims. Psychology is the scientific study of
animal and human behavior and the related mental processes.
The central concerns of scientific psychology are the
explanation, prediction and control of human behavior
1.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.6
Psychology is the scientific study of ____________ and
____________ behaviour.
Behaviour can be ___________ and ____________
The types of psychology are _____________ and
_____________
The three aims of scientific psychology are
(a)_______________
(b)_______________
(c)________________
REFERENCE
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Enwuchola J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah:
Adura Printers.
Wallace J. and Sechrest L.(1973) The Nature and Study of
Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
1.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Enwuchola J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah:
Adura Printers.
Wallace J. and Sechrest L.(1973) The Nature and Study of
Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
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TOPIC 2:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
2.0
PSYCHOLOGY AS A BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE
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INTRODUCTION
2.2
OBJECTIVES
2.3
IN-TEXT
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2.3.2.1
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS -
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CORRELATIONAL STUDIES -
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SURVEY METHODS
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2.3.2 METHODS OF STUDYING
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TESTING -
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SUMMARY -
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SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
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2.6
REFERENCE
2.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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2.0
TOPIC: PSYCHOLOGY AS A BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Psychology claims to be behavioral science. To what extent
is this true? Indeed what is science and what parameters do we
use in describing a discipline as scientific? Having become
familiar with the meaning of, and topics in Psychology we now
discuss the scientific status of psychology as well as its major
methods of study.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic you should be able to
i.
Become conversant with the meaning and parameters
of the scientific method
ii.
Learn the methodology of psychology and its
limitations.
iii. Learn to appreciate the necessity of a multiple
approach to the study of human and animal behavior
2.3
IN-TEXT
2.3.1 PARAMETERS OF SCIENCE
Science is not associated only with hardware such as test
tubes, microscopes as in the physical and natural sciences.
Neither does it refer to the particular body of knowledge,
information or even accuracy. Nor is Science is clothing or
paraphernalia, subject matter or content. According to Wallace
and Sechrest (1973) “....it is not subject matter but method of
study that defines science. The word science does not refer to
any particular body of information, nor does it refer to the
accuracy with which various predictions can be made.
Disciplines are more or less scientific as they employ in greater
or lesser degree the methods of inquiry that characterize science
in general,” ( p 38-39). The scientific method refers to a set of
values and attitudes which consist of the search for empirical
evidence; maintaining objectivity; abiding by the rules of
conduct acceptable to scientists everywhere; and openness and
willingness to recognize and accept findings that may contradict
present theories and hypotheses.
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2.3.2 METHODS OF STUDY
Because psychology overlaps with many other disciplines,
its methods are as varied as the problems that it attempts to
investigate. In general the methods range from simple
observation to rigorous experimentation
2.3.2.1 NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS
Observation as a method of inquiry is appropriate in exploratory
or early phases of investigation when the basic issues and
parameters of a problem are not well known. This method
involves the systematic observations of human or animal
behavior as it occurs in its natural environment. As much as
possible the observer must maintain a physical and social
distance from the subjects in order to avoid interference with
behavior as it ordinarily occurs. This method helps in providing
a "big picture" of the subjects general behavior. Examples are
observing children in a classroom, the use of video camera in
observing driver behavior.
2.3.2.2 CORRELATIONAL STUDIES,
This involves taking measurements on two variables and
assessing whether there is a significant relationship between
them. A significant correlation provides a basis for prediction of
the quantity of each variable based on the quantity of the other.
For example to examine the relationship between anxiety and
learning we can measure the anxiety levels of anxious and non
anxious persons in learning situations. We then use
CORRELATIONAL statistical methods to establish the extent of
this relationship.
2.3.2.3 SURVEY METHODS
This involves the use of questionnaires and structured
interview. These two methods are to measure the opinions,
attitudes or values of a large number of respondents in a short
span of time. The respondents complete the questionnaires
themselves while for the structured interview the interviewer or
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research assistant asks the questions and fills in the answers.
Usually a probability sampling procedure is used to select the
respondents for the survey. This random selection procedure
provides an opportunity to all members of a population to be
included in the sample. Sampling is very important to survey
techniques because the type of sampling determines the
statistical analyses that can be employed.
2.3.2.4 EXPERIMENTATION
Experimentation is often the ideal and most rigorous
method of psychological investigation when the variables
involved are well enough known to allow for control,
quantification and measurement. In a classical experiment the
researcher has control over one or more independent variables
and designs the study to determine the effect of the independent
variables upon a dependent variable. Another set of factors
called control variables are held constant so that they will not
influence the effect of the independent variables upon the
dependent variable.
Experiments may be conducted in the laboratory or in the
"field" (general environment). Greater control may be
established in laboratory experiments by eliminating all
"Extraneous Variables" such as lighting effects, temperature
influences etc. For example, if an experimenter is interested in
the effects of room temperature on examination performance
she may administer two comparison tests, one group of
"Subjects" be exposed to higher room temperatures might be
called the Experimental Group while the second group who
might be exposed to more ordinary room temperatures would be
called the "control Group".
The use of experimentation, unlike the other methods allow
foe conclusions about cause and effect to be made.
2.3.2.5 CASE STUDIES
Clinical settings produce interesting case studies in
Psychology. This method studies one individual (or case) in
detail. It was used by Freud in developing his theories of
personality and by Piaget in developing his theories of human
development A large quantity of data is gathered on a single case
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and certain generalizations made about other individuals with
the same background and symptoms.
2.3.2.6 TESTING
These are the most widely used method within psychology.
Various tests are available to assess intelligence, aptitude,
achievement, interests, and personality. An example is The
Stanford-Binet intelligence. Achievement tests are designed to
measure the level of a person’s achievement in a particular
discipline. Interest inventories attempt to measure the breadth
and depth of the subject's interests. Personality tests are usually
designed to give a picture of the subject's major personality
traits. They are divided into projective personality tests and
objective personality tests. In objective tests, subjects can
control what they choose to reveal about themselves, whereas in
projective tests, the subjects are unable to control what is
revealed.
2.3.3 THE USE OF STATISTICS
Statistics are used in both psychological research design
and analyses especially in statistical testing.
There are two broad types of statistics: descriptive and
inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics describe and
summarize the data. Examples are the mode, median and the
mean;
graphical
representations
of
data,
frequency
distributions, cross tabulations and the use of percentages.
Inferential statistics are more complex, because they are
calculated using the descriptive statistics so that some
conclusion can be inferred from the data and generalized to
similar populations.
Inferential statistics are used to determine whether two
conditions are the same or different (the notion of statistical
significance). Examples of inferential statistics are the chisquare, t-tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and multiple
regression.
2.4
SUMMARY
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In regarding psychology as a behavior science we started
by discussing the parameters of science and concluded that
science refers to a method of doing things rather than to subject
matter. We then proceeded to examine the various methods
employed by psychologists in their study of human behavior.
These methods range from observations to experimentations to
the use of statistics.
2.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
2.6
Answer the following questions (True or False)
What is a science depends on the subject matter (True or
False)
Psychology is not a true science (True or False)
Observation as a method of inquiry is appropriate in
later phases of study (True or False)
Survey methods are qualitative in nature (True or False)
Experimentation is the best method in the social
sciences (True or False)
Correlational techniques are used establish causation
(True or False)
REFERENCE
Elmes, D. G., Cantowitz, B. H., & Rodiger, H. L. (1995).
Research Methods in Psychology. (5th Ed.). St. Paul: West.
Enwuchola J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah:
Adura Printers.
2.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Wallace J. and Sechrest L.(1973) The Nature and Study of
Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
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TOPIC 3:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
3.0
A SHORT HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
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3.1
INTRODUCTION
3.2
OBJECTIVES
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IN-TEXT
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3.3.3 DISCOVERIES IMPORTANT TO PSYCHOLOGY
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3.3.1 THE BEGINNINGS
3.3.2 SEPARTION OF PSYCHOLOGY FROM
PHILOSOPHY
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SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
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3.6
REFERENCE
3.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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3.1
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC: A SHORT HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
This section is concerned with a outline of the historical
development of psychology. Psychology is both old and new. It
has emerged from several disciplines. Psychology is thus both a
natural and a social science. As such a detailed history of the
discipline is not possible here.
3.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic you should be able to
i.
Gain an understanding of the origins and development
of psychology;
ii.
Become fascinated by the study of behavior and
mental processes.
3.3
IN-TEXT
3.3.1 THE BEGINNINGS
Psychology is both an old and a new discipline. It is old
because was always part of the philosophy especially ancient
Greek philosophy. With its roots in ancient Greek Philosophy,
psychology has also been regarded as a philosophical science.
Psychology is new because scientific psychology emerged
between 1860 and 1880. Modern psychology started with the
establishment in1879 of the first psychology laboratory by
Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig. Lepzig is regarded as the father of
experimental psychology. As a science it has its roots in biology,
medicine and physics.
3.3.2 SEPARATION OF PSYCHOLOGY FROM PHILOSOPHY
Psychology emerged as a separate discipline in the 19 th
Century as a results of the development of two line of reasoning,
the Rational Approach by Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650) and the
Empirical Approach by John Locke (1632 - 1704).
According to Rene Descartes the human body is like a
machine but it also has a conscious soul. There human being is
unique because of this dualism of body and soul. Both are
separate. He argues that many of the human ideas are in born
and determined by the structure of the conscious mind itself.
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John Locke challenged this view arguing instead that the
mind at birth is a tabula rasa, a blank slate. Human experiences
transmitted through the senses mold each of our minds to make
it unique. This led to the emphasis on the effects of experience,
perception, and the role of learning and memory in the
explanation of human behavior. We should understand the mind
by analyzing its components instead of discussing a mystical
“soul”. This means that an experimental study of the human
mind was possible.
3.3.3 DISCOVERIES IMPORTANT TO PSYCHOLOGY
(i) Pierre Flowers (1794-1867) discovered that distinct
parts of the brain controlled distinct and different
functions of the body.
(ii) Charles Bell (1774-18420 and Francois Magerdie (17831855) discovered that most nerves in the human body were
concerned with EITHER sensory functions (sending
information to the brain) or motor functions (taking
messages from the brain) to the muscles and the other
structures but not with both.
These experiments led to the realization that an
experimental science of the mind was possible. The mind was
not just a spiritual construct but a biological reality that could be
explored through research. This gave rise to the birth of
physiological psychology.
3.4 SUMMARY
Psychology is an old discipline having emerged from
ancient Greek philosophy. However, as a scientific discipline it is
relatively recent with the establishment of a psychology
laboratory in 1879. Because of its diverse background psychology
is both a social and natural science.
3.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
Psychology
is
an
_____________________
old
discipline
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2.
Psychology
is
a
new
discipline
because
___________________
3.
The
father
of
modern
psychology
is
______________________
4.
The
Rational
Approach
developed
by
________________states that _____________________
5.
The
Empirical
Approach
developed
by
___________________states
that
_________________________
6.
Which part of the brain controls the right side of the
brain?___________________
3.6 REFERENCE
Leahey, T. H. A History of Modern Psychology. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
3.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
Enwuchola, J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah:
Adura Printers.
Wallace, J. and Sechrest, L.(1973) The Nature and Study of
Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
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TOPIC 4:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
4.0
MAJOR SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY
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INTRODUCTION
4.2
OBJECTIVES
4.3
IN-TEXT
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4.3.1 STRUCTURALIS
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4.3.2 FUNCTIONALISM
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4.3.3 BAHAVIORISM
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4.3.4 THE GESTALT SCHOOL
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4.3.5 PSYCHOANALYSIS
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4.3.6 HUMANISM
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SUMMARY -
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SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
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REFERENCE
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4.7
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4.0
TOPIC: MAJOR SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY
4.1
INTRODUCTION
These are schools of thought or perspectives that people
shared while working in the field. Historically speaking, these
schools of thought were generally led by a primary thinker with
many practicing psychologists as followers. For many, their
particular perspective dominated every thing they did in the
field in their practice, in the way they analyzed their clients,
their prescriptions for treatment, and their diagnoses. Some of
these schools of thought died out due to insufficient
methodologies to sustain them. Others are still around today and
have been integrated into current models.
4.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic you should be able to
i.
Become aware of the major schools of psychology;
ii.
Become familiar with the contributions of early major
figures in the field.
4.3
4.3.1
IN-TEXT
STRUCTURALISM
Founded by Wilhelm Wundt of Germany structuralism
attempted to find the structural properties of mind and
consciousness. Their method of investigation was known as
analytic introspective techniques which was a way of isolating
elements of which experiences are made. Structuralists argued
that psychology should focus on the structure of consciousness.
This structure had 3 components: objective sensations,
subjective feelings, and images. They wanted to know what the
mind (or consciousness) contained and in what quantity.
4.3.2
FUNCTIONALISM
The functionalist school was based on Charles Darwin’s
Evolutionary Theory was made popular by William James of
Harvard University. He argued that psychology should be
concerned with the adaptive functions of behavior. According to
him the mind is a functional organ that contributes to the
survival of the individual. William James thus has a practical
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approach to psychology and was more interested in what the
mind does rather than what it was made of. Psychology should
emphasize the function and purpose of thought or consciousness.
William James is often regarded as the Father of Contemporary
Psychology, not just because of his voluminous book on
Psychology but also because of his effort in directing psychology
to relevant and practical everyday human concerns.
4.3.3
BEHAVIORISM
This school was made popular by John B Watson and B. F
Skinner. Watson believed that structuralism, functionalism and
psycho dynamic theories are superstitions because we can't
measure what they claim to study. They argue that psychology as
the science and study of behavior should be concerned with
observable, measurable behavior, not mind. Observable behavior
was more important because you could not measure thinking or
feeling. Watson held that internal events such as thoughts,
images, feelings, and intentions are unmeasurable, and so should
not be part of the subject matter of psychology.
4.3.4
THE GESTALT SCHOOL
Led by Max Wertheimer this group of psychologists focuses
on the organization of perception and thinking in a "whole"
sense, rather than on the individual elements of perception.
Gestalt theory argues that people see patterns and wholes rather
than distinguish object from background. The "credo" of this
school of psychology _ Gestalt psychology_ is "The whole is
greater than the sum of the parts." It is the organization of
elements rather than the elements themselves that is important.
The Gestaltists created many interesting laws and
phenomena relative to how we typically see or interpret the
world around us. Much of their work, especially the Psychology
of perception is still very prevalent and relevant today. The
school is one of the most intriguing fields in psychology today.
4.3.5
PSYCHOANALYSIS
Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud, a medical
doctor in Vienna, Austria in the latter part of the 19th century.
Sigmund Freud focused on unconscious causes of behavior. The
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basic concepts of the theory include the "unconscious", two
powerful instincts which emanated from the unconscious, "Eros"
(life instinct) and "thanatos" (death instinct),the three
components of personality, Id, Ego, and Superego, and the
psychic energy which he called "libido". Some of Freud's early
ideas include, "infantile sexuality", personality completion by
the age of five and the reservoir of hidden motives which had the
potential to cause illness. Dr Freud believes that free will was an
illusion and that behavior was motivated by unconscious
instincts not available to consciousness. The major goal of
psychoanalysis is to bring repressed material to consciousness.
According to this school the human personality has three
parts. The id consists of our primitive inherited urges. It is
unconscious and operates on the basis of the pleasure principle.
The ego, the executive arm of personality operates on the reality
principle. It restrains the id until the impulses can be satisfied
appropriately. The superego, the third part of personality, the
moral arm, is our conscience or superego. It permits
gratification of the id only when it is morally appropriate. The
ego
mediates between the conflicting aims of the id and
superego.
The method of study and therapy Freud calls "free
association" (patients talk freely about themselves) and Freud
tries to interpret these verbalizations in terms of unconscious
motives and ego defense mechanisms.
4.3.6
HUMANISM
The Humanist movement launched in the 1950s was
founded by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May. They
believe that neither behaviorism or psychoanalysis took into
account that which he considered best about humans: free_will
and ability to make choices. The humanists emphasize every
person's potential for self_development people are basically
good. They believe that people will strive to achieve positive
social goals and the highest and best for themselves.
4.4
SUMMARY
As mentioned in the last lecture psychology has developed
from a convergence of both natural and social sciences. Many
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founding fathers and schools have therefore contributed to the
discipline. In this lecture the major schools that contributed to
the development of psychology were examined.
4.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
4.6
The three components of consciousness emphasized
by
the
Structural
school
are______________,
_____________ and _____________
The functional school insists that psychology should
be interested in the ______________________of
behaviour.
According to the behaviourists, psychology should be
concerned with __________, ___________ behavior,
not mind
To
the
gestalt
school
"The
whole
is
__________________________________."
Psychoanalytic
theory
emphasizes
the
____________________ sources of behaviour while
the three systems of personality are the ________,
_________, and the ___________
REFERENCE
Heidbreder, E. (1933) Seven Psychologies. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts
Wallace J. and Sechrest L.(1973) The Nature and Study of
Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
4.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Enwuchola J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah:
Adura Printers.
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TOPIC 5:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION AND USES OF
PSYCHOLOGY INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
IN-TEXT 5.3.1 CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
5.3.2 COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY
5.3.3 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 25
5.3.4 ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
5.3.5 INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY 25
5.3.6 ERGONOMICS OR ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY
5.3.7 PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY 5.3.8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 26
5.3.9 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
5.3.10 SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY
5.3.11 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 5.3.12 ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY 5.3.13 ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 28
5.3.14 FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 5.3.15 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY 5.3.16 SPORT PSYCHOLOGY 28
5.3.17 VOCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
5.3.18 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY SUMMARY 29
SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES REFERENCE
SUGGESTED READINGS
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5.1
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC: AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION AND USES OF PSYCHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Psychology consists of a number of sub disciplines
concerned with the study of the different levels and contexts of
human thought and behavior.
Psychology is also an
interdisciplinary science. It has a relationship with other
subjects such as biology, sociology, anthropology and neurology.
There are therefore many areas of specialization in psychology.
5.2.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic you should be able to
i.
Become
familiar
with
the
major
areas
of
specialization in Psychology
ii.
Become familiar with the contributions of the major
areas in the field of psychology.
5.3.
5.3.1
IN-TEXT
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Clinical Psychology has undergone rapid growth in recent
years and is now the largest sub discipline consisting of a third
within psychology. Clinical psychologists work in academic
settings, in hospitals, in clinics, community health centers, and
in private practice. Their main concerns are the diagnoses and
treatment of disturbed and maladaptive behaviors. Clinical
psychologists work with a wide variety of populations ranging
from individuals suffering from chronic psychiatric disorders
groups like children, the elderly, or those with specific disorders
such as schizophrenia. Many conduct psychological research
along with their applied work. Clinical psychologists are trained
graduates in psychology departments.
5.3.2
COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY
The work of Counseling psychologists is similar to that of
clinical psychologists do. However, counseling psychologists
tend to focus more on individuals with normal problems of
everyday living. They assist persons with adjustment problems
(educational, vocational, or social) rather than on persons
suffering from severe psychological disorders. Many counseling
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psychologists work in the universities and other
institutions of learning, and social welfare centers.
5.3.3
higher
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social Psychology looks into all facets of human social
interaction, how people behave when interacting and the
processes influencing this interaction. They study how people’s
beliefs, feelings, and behaviors are affected by other persons.
Topics of interest to social psychologists are person perception
and attribution processes, attitude formation and change,
aggression, prejudice, interpersonal attraction. Most social
psychologists work in academic settings, but some work in
government agencies and private businesses doing applied
research.
5.3.4
ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
This is concerned with the human relationships at work.
Topics covered are worker motivation, Leadership and
communication processes and decision-making practices. They
are employed in business, government agencies, and academic
settings.
5.3.5
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
One of the areas of applied psychology is concerned with
personnel problems in the work place. The topics include
personnel recruitment and selection, placement, training,
promotion, appraisal and morale.
5.3.6
ERGONOMICS OR ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY
Also one of the areas of applied psychology is concerned
with person-machine relationships and the design of
manufactured products. Some industrial psychologists, for
example, are involved in the design dashboards, which are used
in airplanes and automobiles. Their aim is to apply knowledge of
human capabilities and limitations to the design of
instrumentation that is to be used by humans. The aim is to
produce the maximum degree of efficiency, safety, worker
comfort and efficiency.
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PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY OR PSYCHO BIOLOGY
Physiological Psychology is concerned with studying the
biological bases of behavior particularly the brain and central
nervous system and all the neurological and physiological events
that underlie human thought and action. Some physiological
psychologists are concerned with mapping the functions of
various parts of the brain while others examine both the
transmission of electrical information in the brain and the
neurotransmitters that facilitate or inhibit such transmissions.
Physiological psychologists assess the effects of drugs on human
behavior.
5.3.8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
This group of psychologists study the behavioral, emotional
and intellectual growth of human beings from conception in the
womb to death. However, the main focus is on infancy, childhood
and adolescent periods. Some of the areas they are interested in
are Children's peer relations, language comprehension,
computational models of cognitive development, parent-infant
interactions, social and communicative behavior in infants, and
language acquisition across languages and cultures. There are
more women in these areas than men. Most developmental
psychologists work in university settings.
5.3.9
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
This field is concerned with the study ad application of
psychological processes to Education. Educational psychologists
conduct research and develop theories about all aspects of
education: classroom instruction, teacher training, measurement
of educational achievement, problem of school administration,
etc. They attempt to understand the basic aspects of learning and
the development of materials and strategies for enhancing the
learning process.
5.3.10 SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY
School psychology is different from educational psychology
in that is more concerned with individuals’ educational failure.
They assess the difficulties and potentialities of individual
students usually at secondary, teachers’ colleges or elementary
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schools. They also counsel parents, teachers and school
administrators on the psychological aspects of school problems.
5.3.11 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Encompasses many different fields of psychology that are
very oriented to pure research and that employ experimental
procedures. Experimental psychologists conduct basic research
on a variety of processes such as sensory mechanisms: vision,
hearing, taste, touch, and smell, perception, learning and
language, cognition, motivation, determining reaction times and
reaction thresholds (the amount of stimulation needed to
produce a response for any given sense) as well as developing
psychological scales for physical stimuli, called psychophysics.
Most of these psychologists work in universities and research
centers.
5.3.12 ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY OR PSYCHO PATHOLOGY
This group of psychologists receives the same training as
clinical psychologists. However, in practice they are engaged
more in research on the origins of abnormal behaviors and the
processes of treating them rather than doing therapy. They study
such behaviors ranging from simple habit disorders such as
thumb sucking, nail biting, alcohol and gambling addictions to
the most severe mental disturbances the psychoses. Abnormal
psychology investigates the causes and dynamics of mental and
behavioral disorders and tests the effectiveness of various
treatments
5.3.13 ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
This area is concerned with the relationship between
people and their physical environment, specifically the effects of
the physical environment on a human behavior and mental
processes. Issues of interest are (1) how environmental stimuli
such as noise, temperature, and weather affect people’s
emotions, cognitive processes, performance, and social
interactions; (2) the effects of the social environment, crowding,
personal space; and (3)
environmental disasters and their
psychological effects.
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5.3.14 FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
Forensic psychologists are concerned with questions and
issues relating to law and the legal system. They offer expert
psychological opinions various court related matters such as
expert testimony, jury selection, child testimony, pretrial
publicity, repressed memories, the death penalty, domestic
violence, drug dependence, and sexual disorders.
5.3.15 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
Health psychologists are concerned with the promotion and
maintenance of good health and the prevention and treatment of
illness. They examine the ways life style and behavioral factors
contribute to physical disease and help design effective
health_oriented psychological interventions. They also advise
and design programs to help people stop smoking, lose weight,
manage stress, and stay physically fit. They work mostly in
hospitals, medical schools, rehabilitation centers, public health
agencies, academic settings, as well as private practice.
5.3.16 SPORT PSYCHOLOGY
Sports psychologists assess the psychological factors
associated with effective participation and performance in sport,
exercise, and other types of physical activity. They focus mainly
on two areas: helping athletes to use psychological principles
and skills to achieve optimal mental health and to improve
performance; understanding of how an individuals' participation
in sport, exercise, and physical activity affects their
psychological development, health, and well_being.
5.3.17 VOCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Is concerned with how specific personality traits contribute
to success in different vocations. They are also concerned
assessing the traits and aptitudes that contribute to successful
career development.
5.3.18 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
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Focuses on the intellectual processes such as thinking,
knowing, perception, memory etc. The computer revolution has
influenced and aided the development of Cognitive Theory
because computer scientists were interested in contemplating
the human mind as a computer model applies to the study of
thinking, concept formation, and problem solving. Computers
are used to present problems and tasks to subjects and to model
the thinking and problem-solving processes.
5.4
SUMMARY
Psychology has grown over the years and now has so many
areas of specializations. The areas continues to grow by the day
although overlapping does take place among them. This lecture
reviews the major areas of modern psychology.
5.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
5.6
Clinical
psychology
is
concerned
with
________________
Counseling
psychology
is
concerned
with
_____________
Industrial
and
organizational
psychology
are
_______________ social psychology
Development psychology examines the development
of human beings from ____________ to death
Ergonomics deals with ___________/_____________
relationships
REFERENCE
Enwuchola J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah:
Adura Printers.
5.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Wallace J. and Sechrest L.(1973) The Nature and Study of
Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
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TOPIC 6:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
6.0
THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR
-
-
29
6.1
INTRODUCTION
6.2
OBJECTIVES
6.3
IN-TEXT
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-
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30
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6.3.1 THE BRAIN AND ITS FUNCTION -
-
30
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6.4
SUMMARY -
-
-
-
-
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6.5
SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
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-
-
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6.6
REFERENCE
-
-
-
-
33
6.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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6.1
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC: THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR
INTRODUCTION
To understand
many psychological processes it is
necessary to examine their underlying biological processes.
These are the nervous system, sense organs, muscle, and the
endocrine system. The importance of the brain to human
functioning is of course obvious. This section is concerned with
how the various organs mentioned above affect human behavior.
6.2.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic you should be able to
i.
Become aware of the relationship between the parts
of the brain and particular behaviors;
ii.
Become familiar with the concept of and reason for
the split brain.
6.3. IN-TEXT
6.3.1 THE BRAIN AND ITS FUNCTIONS
The Central nervous system is made up of the brain and the
spinal cord. Apart from this there is also the peripheral nervous
system which consists of the somatic and autonomic nervous
systems. The brain, a complex organ consisting of several
structures, serves as the regulating center for the body. Below
are the main brain parts and their functions.
(I) THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
This area of the brain performs mental/intellectual
functions, planning and foresight. The cortex receives
stimulation from the environment, integrates it and reacts to it.
It also integrates the functions of the sense organs in the body.
(II) THE CEREBELLUM
Coordinates muscular activities and maintenance
balance. It is of very little interest to psychologists.
of
(III) THE THALAMUS
The thalamus controls the transmissions of sensory
information, to and from the brain, (except the sense of smell)
through the spinal cord or medulla. It also organizes and
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modifies the messages being transmitted, deciding which are
important and which are not.
(IV) THE HYPOTHALAMUS
This section of the brain is of very significance to
psychologists because it controls most of the vital functions of
the body - hunger, thirst, sleep, sweating, temperature control,
the master gland (the pituitary gland), regulation of metabolism,
temperature, and blood pressure. The hypothalamus controls the
emotional and motivational states of human being; indeed all the
pleasurable things of life
(VI) THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA
This is an extremely sensitive organ that contains the
nerves entering and leaving the brain.
Its vital functions include the control of respiration, the
heart beat and blood pressure, and the diaphragm. As a results
any damage the medulla is a direct threat to human life.
(VII) THE FRONTAL LOBE
This section controls thought processes, verbal memory,
logic, and the sense of the future.
(VIII) THE TEMPORAL LOBE
Controls language perception.
(IX) THE OCCIPITAL LOBE
Registers and coordinates visual processes.
(X) THE PARIETAL LOBE
This organ controls the sense of touch and the feedback
system about bodily activities (the kinesthetic sense).
(XI) THE RETICULAR SYSTEM
This part of the brain controls our state of awareness and
alertness, asleep or awake
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(XII) THE SPINAL CORD
This is long tube with a narrow hollow (filled by ceresbro
spinal fluid) that begins at the back of the neck where it is
called the brain stem. The spinal cord is joined by nerves from
the lower parts of the body. The main function of the spinal cord
is the transmission of nerve impulses to the brain. It is also
responsible for reflex actions.
(IX) THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
Controls emotion
(hippocampus).
(amygdala,
septum)
and
emotion
(IIX) THE SPLIT BRAIN AND THE CORPUS CALLOSUM
The brain, like the body, also consists of left-right
symmetry in which all nerves at the right have their equivalent
at the left side. However, all nerves cross to the other side of the
body on their way to and from the brain. The result is that the
left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and vice
versa. The reason for this funny arrangement is to enable each
side know what the other is doing instead of the two sides
working in isolation. The Corpus Callosum connects the two sets
of nerves and brings unity between the two hemispheres.
6.4 SUMMARY
Human behavior is affected by both biological and social
factors. The role of the brain as the center controlling bodily
functions is explained in this section. The various parts of the
brain and their contributions to human bodily functioning were
discussed.
6.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
The Central nervous system is made up of the ______
and the _________ ______.
The peripheral nervous system which consists of the
__________ and __________ __________ systems.
State the functions of the following parts of the brain
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Part
Function
The cortex
The cerebellum
The hypothalamus
The frontal lobe
The reticular system
6.6
REFERENCE
Enwuchola J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah:
Adura Printers.
Kalat, J. W. (1992) Biological Psychology (4th Ed.). Belmont,
California: Wadsworth Publishing Co.
6.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Kolb, B. and Whishaw, I. Q. (1994) Fundamentals of Human
Neuropsychology (4th Ed.). New York: Freeman.
Wallace J. and Sechrest L.(1973) The Nature and Study of
Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
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TOPIC 7:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
7.0
LEANING -
7.1
INTRODUCTION
7.2
OBJECTIVES
7.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
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7.3.1 DEFINITION AND TYPES OF LEARNING
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35
7.3.2 EVIDENCE OF LEARNING -
36
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7.3.3 LEARNING AND CONDITIONING -
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7.4
SUMMARY -
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SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
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7.6
REFERENCE
-
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-
36
7.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
-
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7.0
TOPIC: LEARNING
7.1
INTRODUCTION
This section is concerned with how organisms learn to
behave in new ways
All organisms including human beings are continuously
learning through out their lives. We learn from cradle to grave.
This means that learning is one of the most significant
experiences we experience as human beings. It is the basis of
socialization, of education and all forms of human experience.
The three types of learning mechanisms we will consider in
Learning
Theory
are
Classical
Conditioning,
Operant
Conditioning and Social Learning Theory.
7.2.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic you should be able to
i.
Become aware of the meaning of learning
ii.
Become familiar with the evidence of learning.
7.3. IN-TEXT
7.3.1 DEFINITION AND TYPES OF LEARNING
What is learning? Kimble (1961) defines learning as a
relatively permanent change in behavior produced through
practice and or prior experience. The key words are change in
behavior and prior experience/practice. Learning results from
interaction with the environment. It is not due to temporary or
transient conditions. Neither is it due to a large extent to
maturation and growth although earlier maturation might affect
learning. Barring any bodily defects infants must sit down,
crawl, stand up and walk. These activities are not due solely to
learning but to maturation. Learning can not be attributed to use
of drugs. This is a reason why athletes caught taking
performance enhancing drugs are usually sanctioned with a ban.
Learning can be for better or worse. In other words we learn
both socially desirable and undesirable patterns of behavior.
Sewing, dancing, armed robbery, hate and prejudice are all
learned. Learning a potential change in behavior, is an
inferential construct. We can not see learning but only after it
has taken place.
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7.3.2 EVIDENCE OF LEARNING
i.
Increased probability of occurrence of correct
responses
ii.
Delay or lack of delay in occurrence of correct
response
iii. Response rate and response quality.
7.3.3 LEARNING AND CONDITIONING
The simplest and most basic learning is called conditioning.
It is acquiring specific patterns of behavior in the presence of
well defined stimulus. Conditioning refers to stimulus response
connections.
7.4
SUMMARY
One activity that we are all engaged in throughout life is
learning. It is the basis of socialization, of education and all
forms of human activity and experience. We learn both negative
and positive things. The various evidence of learning were
stated.
7.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
Answer the following questions (True or False)
1. Learning results in completely permanent change in
behaviour
(True or False)
2. Learnng and “cramming” are the same things (True or
False)
3. An evidence of learning is delay in production of correct
response
(True or False)
4. Learning stops after our university studies (True or False)
5. Armed robbery is not learned (True or False)
7.6
REFERENCE
Wallace J. and Sechrest L.(1973) The Nature and Study of
Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
SUGGESTED READINGS
Enwuchola J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah:
Adura Printers.
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TOPIC 8:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
8.0
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
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37
8.1
INTRODUCTION
8.2
OBJECTIVES
8.3
IN-TEXT
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8.3.1 THE THEORY AND THE EXPERIMENT -
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8.3.2 SPECIAL TERMINOLOGIES- -
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8.3.3 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING -
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8.4
SUMMARY -
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8.5
SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
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8.6
REFERENCE
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8.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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8.0
TOPIC: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
8.1
INTRODUCTION
Having defined learning we will now proceed to one of
three types of learning mechanisms, Classical or Pavlovian
Conditioning. Classical conditioning was discovered by accident
by a Russian Physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, a Nobel Prize winner
while conducting experiments on the salivary processes in dogs.
His discovery was to have tremendous impact on psychology.
8.2.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic you should be able to
i.
Become aware of the meaning and processes of
classical conditioning
ii.
Learn to appreciate the practical significance of
classical conditioning
8.3. IN-TEXT
8.3.1 THE THEORY AND THE EXPERIMENT
Pavlov’s main research objective was the examination of
the relationship between secretion of saliva and the process of
eating. In an experiment a dog is connected to a special
apparatus that measures the amount of salivary flow. Pavlov
would then feed his dog with small amounts of food and then
observed and measured the salivary flow. He found that the
presence of small amounts of food in the dog’s mouth would
stimulate salivation. He then proceeded further by striking a
turning fork that produces a bell-like ringing tone anytime he
fed the dog. The dog then started salivating at the sight of food .
It also salivated when ever the bell was sounded even without
food being presented. The dog started salivating on seeing
Pavlov himself, his assistants and even on hearing Pavlov’s
footsteps. The startling discovery has been made that when two
events are learned in association with each other the presence of
one will trigger behaviors associated with the other even though
this other behavior is not present.
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8.3.2 SPECIAL TERMINOLOGIES
(i)
The unconditioned stimulus (US) the food is a
natural stimulus which will elicit a natural (reflexive)
response
The
Unconditioned
Response
(UR)(salivation) from an organism.
UR is not learned; it is an innate reflex response to US.
(ii) The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) the Bell is neutral
stimulus that produces a response because of
learning. It does not evoke the UR at the beginning of
learning.
(iii)
The Conditioned Response (CR) Salivation is
the learned or acquired response because of the
proximity of the CS to the US in time and space as
well as its signal qualities
It will then elicit a response similar to the UR, but one
that is now called the CR.
(iv) Trial and Acquisition
A trial is each paired presentation of US and CS e.g
food and bell.
Acquisition or conditioning is the period when the
organism is learning the CS_CR association.
(v)
Generalization occurs when the organism responds
to additional stimuli in that physically resemble but
are not identical to the original CS. Pavlov's dog may
salivate to the bell also to buzzer or a chime if those
signals were substituted for the bell. Generalization
has a survival value hence the saying “Once bitten
twice shy”. A hurtful encounter with an insect, snake,
pond will teach the an individual to be careful of
similar organisms or objects.
(vi)
Discrimination, the opposite of generalization,
occurs when the organism recognizes only very
specific stimulus and not those resembling it. For
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example, Pavlov's dog finds that the buzzer is never
followed by the meat, whereas the bell(original CS) is
sometimes or always followed by the US.
Discrimination also has survival value. It is one
reason why children are taught to be ware of
strangers, and to discriminate between safe and
dangerous places and between edibles an non edibles.
(vii)
Extinction refers to a "reversal" of the
classically conditioned response (CS) once it has been
established because of continued non-presentation of
an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer. For example,
if Pavlov decided that the experimental dog that had
been conditioned to salivate to a bell, should have
that response extinguished and the dog exposed to the
CS in the absence of the follow up US the association
between CS and the CR would be extinguished.
(viii)
Spontaneous Recovery refers to the sudden
reappearance after a elapsed time following an
extinguished CR. Habits may suddenly start even
when there is no reinforcement. An example is a
criminal who on retirement plans imaginary crimes.
8.3.3 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
(i)
Useful in language learning situations words accompanied
by action, e.g the word ‘tap’ accompanied by tapping.
(ii) Used in advertisement
(iii) Useful in drug administration
(iv) Basis of severe anxiety, fear, hatred, disgust. Usually the
basis of phobia
(v) Basis of prejudice, tribalism, racism, stereotypes.
8. 4 SUMMARY
Classical conditioning is a passive learning in that Pavlov
elicited the response, the reinforcement is part of the trial, while
the animals respond to the stimuli. The organism associates the
Unconditioned Stimulus with the Conditioned Stimulus. This is
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one of the major ways organism learn. The practical implication
of this type of learning was discussed.
8.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
8.6
Another
term
for
classical
conditioning
is
_________________ learning
In Pavlov’s experiment the dog formed a link between
the _________ and the ________
The conditioned stimulus is the _______________
The unconditioned response is the ________________
In
spontaneous
recovery
the
dog
suddenly
_________________________________
REFERENCE
Wallace J. and Sechrest L.(1973) The Nature and Study of
Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
8.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Enwuchola J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah:
Adura Printers.
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TOPIC 9:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
9.0
OPERANT OR INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
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42
9.1
INTRODUCTION
9.2
OBJECTIVES
9.3
IN-TEXT
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9.3.1 INTRODUCTION -
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9.3.2 SKINNER’S TYPICAL EXPERIMENT
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9.3.3 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENTS
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45
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9.3.4 PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF OPERANT
CONDITIONINIG
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9.3.5 THE USE OF PUNISHMENT -
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9.4
SUMMARY -
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9.5
SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
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9.6
REFERENCE
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9.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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9.0
TOPIC: OPERANT OR INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
9.1
INTRODUCTION
Operant conditioning was developed by B. F Skinner, hence
another name for it is Skinnerian conditioning. The main
assumption underlying the theory is that an individual’s
behavior is governed by its consequences. Operant conditioning
differs from classical conditioning in two basic ways First it is
begins with a voluntary response rather than a reflex. Further,
the association that the organism learns is that which occurs
between the R (response of organism) and the R+ (positive
reinforcement from environment).
9.2.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic you should be able to
i.
Become aware of the meaning and processes of
operant conditioning
ii.
Learn to appreciate the practical significance of
operant conditioning
9.3.
IN-TEXT
9.3.1. INTRODUCTION
Operant Conditioning is based on The Law of Effect is
based on the principle that (a) if a behavior is followed by a
positive consequence it will be repeated more frequently and (b)
if a behavior is followed by a negative consequence it will not be
repeated that frequently in the future. Operant learning is thus
learning that takes place because of the relationship between
behavior and its consequences. According to Skinner the rate at
which a response occurs increases by arranging a reinforcing
consequence, while by eliminating the consequence, the rate
decreases. Operant conditioning is used to train animals to
perform various skills.
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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
SKINNER’S TYPICAL EXPERIMENT
He used the famous “Skinner Box” in which starved rats
were kept. Several activities could be embarked upon by the rat.
For example the rat could scratch at the door, sit and brood,
explore the box or press a lever that was constructed in the box.
Any time the rat pressed the level food pellets would drop from
the roof of the box. In another experiment a pigeon was placed
in the laboratory box with several colors instead of a lever. She
pecked at a blue there was not food; she pecked at the red color,
still no food, at the yellow, still not food but when she pecked at
the black, food pellets dropped from the roof of the box.
Thus unlike classical conditioning the organism must make
a desired response before reward is presented. It is therefore the
organism’s actions rather than the experimenter’s that
determines whether or not reward will be received.
9.3.3
TYPES OF REINFORCEMENTS
Positive Reinforcement
This is the presentation of something pleasant following
the performance of a desired activity. An example is praising a
child for good behavior or promoting a worker for increased
productivity.
Negative Reinforcement
This is following a behavior or response by removing
something unpleasant. Also known as avoidance conditioning
negative reinforcement is presenting an aversive stimulus to an
organism so that it will avoid a particular behavior. An aversive
learning is when the rat learned to press the bar to stop electric
shock. Another example is a child who does his homework in
order to avoid scolding or spanking from his parents and
teachers.
Negative reinforcement if different from punishment which
is causing an unpleasant condition for someone in order to
eliminate an undesirable behavior. In negative reinforcement
the termination of the unpleasant condition is used to strengthen
a desired response. A parent may scold a child for not doing his
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homework (punishment). The child may do his homework to
avoid scolding (negative reinforcement).
9.3.4
PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION
Teaching machines and modules have been designed based
on instrumental conditioning to present information to learners
who are then required to respond by writing the answers in the
appropriate spaces without supervision by anyone. Correct
answers are automatically indicated in the case of computers or
at the end of the section/chapter as in this module.
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
In a classroom situation the teacher may pay attention to
children only when desirable behavior is expected of them,
especially the attention seeking ones. Teachers and parents
should also present the “don’t” rules with the “do’s”) ones. The
use of Token Economy to reward desirable behaviors is also
effective in behavior modification.
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
There are two broad types of schedules of reinforcement:
the Continuous Schedule and the Intermittent/Partial schedule.
The continuous schedule is rewarding the organism anytime
correct or desirable behavior is emitted. In this type of
reinforcement the value of the reinforcer gets weakened
eventually. It is therefore not recommended. Different schedules
of reinforcement generate different patterns of behavior.
Behaviors reinforced on a schedule of intermittent schedule of
reinforcement are more resistant to extinction. The Intermittent
schedule of reinforcement consists of four types as follows:FIXED-INTERVAL SCHEDULE
This involves rewarding the organism according to elapsed
time. An example is the payment of salary at the end of the
calendar month. Another example is writing examinations at the
end of every semester. This method of reinforcement leads to
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scalloping: students increase their study hours and
concentration days before their exams; workers put in their best
behaviors when salaries are about to be paid; children try to be
very nice when big ceremonies (Christmas, Salah) are around
the corner so that parents can buy them clothes. As soon as
reinforcements are made the organism relaxes. This schedule is
thus the least efficient because it encourages laziness.
FIXED RATIO SCHEDULE
In this schedule of reinforcement reward is presented after
a fixed number of correct responses has been made. In Skinner’s
box the rat would be rewarded with food pellets only after
pressing the lever a ceratin number of times and the more it
pressed the more rewards it got. In an industrial setting this
reward system is provided where workers are paid on a piecework basis, that is according to the quantity of work done
(number of cement blocks carried or commissions on amount of
sales made. The problem with this schedule is that quality may
suffer in an attempt to get more rewards.
VARIABLE INTERVAL SCHEDULE
In this schedule reward depends on the average time that
has elapsed. The time varies from reinforcement to
reinforcement. In the Skinner Box the rat could be rewarded
after five minutes, then after ten minutes, than after eight
minutes and so on. This is like surprise tests in a learning
situation or surprise visits by Chief Executives to departments in
their organizations. Scalloping is avoided because the individuals
can not accurately know when a reinforcement will occur. It is
thus very effective although not as effective as variable ratio
schedule.
VARIABLE RATIO SCHEDULE
In this schedule reward depends on upon the average
number of correct/desirable responses that has been made. It
varies from trail to trial. It is the best schedule in terms of
obtaining a high rate of steady response.
9.3.5 THE USE OF PUNISHMENT
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Punishment is the use of unwanted situation in order to
bring about a desired behavior. We are all subjected to
punishment from parents, teachers, peer groups, society etc.
Punishment can be verbal or physical. It seems punishment does
not always work because a lot of deviant and criminal behavior
still exists. For punishment to be effective the following are
suggested.
Punishment must immediately follow the offence so the
offender will not forget why he/she is being punished
Punishment must be consistently applied. If randomly
applied offenders may engage in the game of guess work.
Punishment must suit the offence. It should not be mild or
too severe. This is to ensure the sense of justice and fair play.
Punishment should not be
immediately followed by
rewards otherwise the offender will think the punishing agent is
feeling sorry for applying the punishment.
Observational Learning
9.4
SUMMARY
Operant or instrumental conditioning is active learning
because the organism operated or emitted behavior; the
reinforcement is after the trial while they also operate on the
basis of the responses.
9.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
Skinner’s theory is called instrumental conditioning
because _______________________
2.
Positive
reinforcement
is
__________________________
3.
Negative
reinforcement
is
____________________________
4.
Fixed
schedule
of
reinforcement
is
_____________________
5.
Variable
schedule
of
reinforcement
is
__________________
9.6
REFERENCE
Wallace J. and Sechrest L.(1973) The Nature and Study of
Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
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9.7
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
SUGGESTED READINGS
Enwuchola J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah:
Adura Printers.
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TOPIC 10:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
10.0 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
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10.1 INTRODUCTION
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10.2 OBJECTIVES
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10.3 IN-TEXT
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10.3.1 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
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10.5 SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
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10.6 REFERENCE
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10.4 SUMMARY -
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10.1
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC: OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
INTRODUCTION
In the previous two lectures we were concerned with
classical and operant conditioning. However, not all learning can
be attributed to these two methods. Sometimes we learn by
watching people from hearing about these other people. It is
therefore important that we discuss a third type of learning
which is variously called Observational Learning, Modeling,
Vicarious Conditioning or Social Learning.
10.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic you should be able to
i.
Recognize that not all learning are due to classical
and operant conditioning
ii.
Become conversant with learning that is due to social
learning
10.3 IN-TEXT
10.3.1 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Social Learning Theory was first propounded by Albert
Bandura (1962). According to this model learning is a continuous
interaction between human beings and the social environment.
We learn how to behave through the example of people that we
observe. This social learning occurs the observing live
persons/models and through other symbolic models. Vicarious
learning is learning from other people’s experiences (e. g from
history) Thus feelings of love, hate, prejudice, and aggression
are often learnt through watching models . Unless the earlier
two models (Classical and Operant Conditioning) that involve
trial and error observational learning is “no trial” learning.
Apart from showing us how people learn practical skills and
abilities, observational learning reveals how ideas, values and
self-control are passed from person to person. Social learning
theory shows us that children learn more from what they
observe than from what they are told. If parents don’t practice
what they preach the children will practice what they (the
parents) do rather than what they say. That is why watching
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violent scenes on television increases the tendency of youngsters
to engage in violent and dangerous, and deviant/criminal
behaviors. Media coverage of riots also increases the spread of
riots. Hijacking is learned more by the information received
through the radio and television.
According to Bandura the following four mechanisms are
necessary for the social learning to take place.
(i)
Exposure and Attentional Processes: This is the
amount of attention paid to modeling cues which
could be live or symbolic. It has been found that
physical attractiveness and the status of a model
enhance observational learning.
(ii) Retention Processes; This has to has to do with
remembering what has been watched or observed .
(iii) Motor Reproduction: This has to do from translating
what has been observed to action.
(iv) Reinforcement: This has to do with rewards
anticipated from modeling the behavior.
10.4
SUMMARY
All learning can not be attributed to classical and operant
conditioning. Learning also occurs through watching other
people’s behavior. Social learning theory states that most of our
social behavior is obtained through observing others.
10.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
Another
term
for
observational
learning
is
________________ learning
In
observational
learning
we
learn
by
__________________ other people or events.
_________ phases are involved in observational
learning
10.6 REFERENCE
Enwuchola, J. S. (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah: Adura
Printers.
10.7
SUGGETSDE READINGS
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Wallace, J. and Sechrest L.(1973) The Nature and Study of
Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
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TOPIC 11:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
11.0 FORGETTING OF LEARNT MATERIAL -
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51
11.1 INTRODUCTION
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11.2 OBJECTIVES
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11.3 IN-TEXT
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11.3.1 FORGETTING OF LEARNT MATERIAL -
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11.3.2 TRACE DECAY FORGETTING
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11.3.3 INFERENCE THEORY -
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11.5 SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
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11.6 REFERENCE
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11.4 SUMMARY -
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11.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
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11.0
11.2
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC: FORGETTING OF LEARNT MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
This section and the next deals with how and why we
forget and remember the things that we have learned? We start
with forgetting because it is easier to forget than to remember.
It is even more convenient and safer to forget many things than
to remember them. Imagine remembering everything we were
taught right from primary school up to date. Or remembering all
the bad experiences we have had. We would be stark raving
mad! This section is concerned with the various types of
forgetting.
11.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic you should be able to
i.
Recognize the two types of memory
ii.
Relate the two main types of forgetting to the two
theories of memory.
11.3
IN-TEXT
11.3.1 FORGETTING OF LEARNT MATERIALS
Forgetting is the difference between the amount learnt and
the amount retained over a period of time without further
practice. As said above we will first discuss forgetting because it
is more normal to forget than remember. If we should remember
everything we have been taught from nursery days or all the bad
things that have happened to us our brains will be so clogged
with many things that we would hardly be able to function
normally as rational human beings. There are two main
theories/types of forgetting: Trace Decay Theory and
Interference Theory.
11.3.2 TRACE DECAY FORGETTING
The trace decay hypothesis, the simplest view of forgetting
suggests that we forget information in memory because of the
mere passage of time. This theory states that we forget learned
materials because of their non-use of . It is assumed that when
we learn a memory trace or engram is left in the brain. As time
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goes on and as we don’t use learnt materials this engram decays
and fades away through normal metabolic processes. Learned
materials gradually disintegrate and eventually disappear.
Examples are that we are more likely to remember things
learned recently than those learned long ago.
Problem: 1. We don’t usually forget motor skills such as
dancing, cycling, swimming, driving etc. even though we
have not performed these tasks for a while.
2. Old senile persons often remember events of their youths
over 50 years ago but can hardly remember events of the
day or the names of their grandchildren. Why? It means
trace decay is not enough to explain all types of forgetting.
11.3.3 INTERFERENCE THEORY
Sometimes materials learned at different and various
points in times get mixed-up and confuse some confusing when
attempts are made to retrieve them. Interference theory
suggests that forgetting results from interference among
information stored in memory. This theory states that forgetting
is due to interference and unlearning caused by other learned
materials. This interference causes confusion between what is
the memory and what is to be learned.
There are two types of Interference
(I) PROACTIVE INHIBITION
This is the effect of earlier learning on later ones. Materials
learned earlier makes new learning difficult. interference is
acting forward in time. An example is that learning to drive on
the left in Britain may be difficult and even dangerous when one
is used to driving on the right here in Nigeria.
(II) RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE
This is the effect of later learning on earlier ones. In this
case forgetting may take one of two forms.
a. New learning may compete with a person’s memory of
previously learned materials such that the new ones cause
a kind of confusion which results in the forgetting of old
materials(confusion or competition factor);
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b. New learning can cause the actual unlearning of the old
materials to be remembered (unlearning factor).
Examples are learning Greek having learned Latin or
learning a new formula for solving a mathematical or statistical
problem having been used to another one.
11.4 SUMMARY
Forgetting of learnt materials is
more normal than
remembering them. Forgetting can be due to either non use of
learnt materials or to confusion among the materials learned.
The problem associated with the two processes were also
outlined.
11.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCIES
1.
2.
3.
11.6
Which is easier, remembering or forgetting?
The trace decay theory states that we forget because
of ______________________ of learned materials.
Interference theory states that we forget because of
____________________ among learned materials.
REFERENCES
Enwuchola, J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah:
Adura Printers.
11.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Wallace, J. and Sechrest, L. (1973) The Nature and Study of
Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
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TOPIC 12:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
12.0 MEMORY (REMEMBERING LEARNT MATERIAL) -
55
12.1 INTRODUCTION
-
-
-
-
-
-
56
12.2 OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
56
12.3 IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
56
12.3.1 INTRODUCTION -
-
-
-
-
56
12.3.2 THREE TYPES OF MEMORY -
-
-
56
-
-
-
58
12.5 SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
-
-
-
58
12.6 REFERENCE
-
-
-
-
58
-
-
-
-
58
-
12.4 SUMMARY -
-
-
-
-
12.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
-
-
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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC: MEMORY (REMEMBERING LEARNT
MATERIALS)
12. 1 INTRODUCTION
How is that we remember the things that we have learned?
The memory processes involve three related activities: Encoding,
Storage and Retrieval.
Encoding is mentally processing
information so it can be placed into memory; Storage is the
holding of that information for a period of time, while Retrieval
is the process of accessing or recalling stored memories when
needed.
This section is concerned with remembering or the
memory process.
12.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic you should be able to
i.
Recognize the three types of memory
ii.
Relate the two main types memory to the two theories
of
forgetting
12.3 IN-TEXT
12.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Memory refers to remembering learnt materials or ‘holding
on to’ events and information that have been obtained through
learning and experience. Remembering learned materials is
neither simple nor normal. There two main types of memory but
we shall a third for clarity purposes.
12.3.2 THREE TYPES OF MEMORY
(i) THE SENSORY REGISTER.
Also known as the sensory store this is a fleeting visual
memory that can be regarded as the reception hall of memory. It
is through here that all learned materials must pass through to
long-term before entering short-term memory. The sensory
register has a huge capacity but it has a very brief retention
time. This is because it is impossible to note all that we see at
any given point in time. When we look outside the window we
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see many things but we can not take not of all of them hence the
fleeting nature of the sensory store.
(ii) SHORT-TERM MEMORY:
The second type of memory is known as the short-term (not
short time) memory. It is an auditory,/echoic/or verbal memory
with a small capacity. The short-term memory is said to be
active, temporary, and conscious (holds information we are
actively thinking about) and is what we know in everyday
language referred to as rote memory or “cramming”. It can hold
on to about 7± 2 items at a time and this is possible through
repetition or rehearsal backed up with verbal sounds. Learned
materials can only be transferred to Long Term Memory through
elaborate or constructive repetition or rehearsal. The loss of
information in the short-term memory is most probably due to
trace decay. This is because as soon as the rehearsal stops the
memory also disappears. This is the case with most students
reading for their examinations. They summarize their notes on
small pieces of paper and continue “cramming” and rehearsing
throughout the night. As soon as the examination is over, the so
call “learnt” materials disappears.
(iii) LONG-TERM MEMORY
The Long-Term memory has a vast capacity for containing
almost unlimited amounts of information. The long-term
memory is highly organized and is said to be relatively
permanent. Once information is retained in the long-term
memory it stays there although retrieval may be difficult. This is
because new items or learnt materials are assimilated in the
long-term memory by first relating them to the materials that
are already there. Thus information in the long-term memory
has meaning. In our examples of students preparing for
examination they really understand any learnt materials that has
entered the long term memory. This is different from
“cramming” materials that have no meaning to them. Further,
learnt materials will be retained and remembered without
further rehearsal. The long term memory is like a library and its
card index: information entering it is arranged more according
to its meaning than in terms of its sight and sound.
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In terms of retrieval, information in the long term memory
has been divided into two: available information and accessible
information. It is said that all information in the Long Term
Memory is available i.e can be remembered under proper
circumstance but that only information which is remembered is
accessible. Thus accessible information is always available but
available information may not always be accessible. This means
that information has first to be retrieved to be accessible.
A book may be there in the university library but may not
be accessible may because it has been mistakenly kept in the
wrong place or deliberately kept in a different subject area by
some selfish and unscrupulous students.
Thus forgetting of information in the long term memory is
often due to probably due to interference of either newly learnt
materials with old ones or vice versa.
12.4 SUMMARY
Remembering, the holding unto information learned is a
complex process. It occurs through three
interrelated
procedures. The first is the visual memory which is a vast but
temporary storage of information. The second process is more
auditory and is regarded as rote memory. The third method, the
long-term memory is meaningful memory. Information stored
here is always available although it may not easily be accessible.
12.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
Memory is _______________ learned materials
2.
The sensory register is the __________ hall of memory
3.
Short term memory which is used by most students
involves _____________
4.
The long term memory is like a large filling
_________________
5.
All information in the long term memory are
_________________
but
may
not
be
_________________
12.6 REFERENCES
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Wallace J. and Sechrest L.(1973) The Nature and Study of
Psychology. Tasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
12.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Enwuchola J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah:
Adura Printers.
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TOPIC 13:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
13.0 HUMAN MOTIVATION
-
-
-
-
-
59
13.1 INTRODUCTION
-
-
-
-
-
-
60
13.2 OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
60
13.3 IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
60
13.3.1 INTRODUCTION -
-
-
-
-
60
13.3.2 PHYSIOLOGICAL MOTIVES -
-
-
60
13.3.3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
62
13.3.5 OTHER LEANED MOTIVES -
-
-
-
63
13.3.6 UNCONCIOUS MOTIVES
-
-
-
-
63
-
-
-
63
13.5 SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
-
-
-
63
13.6 REFERENCE
-
-
-
-
64
-
-
-
-
64
-
STIMULUS MOTIVES
62
13.3.4 SOCIAL MOTIVES
13.4 SUMMARY -
-
-
-
-
13.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
-
-
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13.0
TOPIC: HUMAN MOTIVATION
13. 1 INTRODUCTION
This section is concerned with the why of behavior. What is
it that make human beings behave the way do, at different times
and under different circumstances. Motivation theory seeks the
causes of behavior. As you may have already explaining the
causes of a single behavior can be a herculean task.
13.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic you should be able to
i.
Recognize the various types of motivations;
ii.
Relate the main types memory to the types of
emotions in
the next lecture.
13.3 IN-TEXT
13.3.1 INTRODUCION
The word motivation is derived from the Latin word
“Movere” which is translated to “to move”. The term is thus
concerned with the internal processes that energizes and directs
behavior
toward the achievement of a specific objective.
Motivation also has to do with the choice of alternatives to
achieve the goal of the organism. Motivation involves three
stages: a stimulus (such a bodily need for food), which then
triggers a motive (arousal to action), which in turn activates
behavior tat would bring about goal attainment.
There are many types of motives which can be grouped as
(a) Physiological Motives, (b) Stimulus Motives, and (c) Social
Motives.
13.3.2 PHYSIOLOGICAL MOTIVES
These motives are required for the survival of the
organism. Also called primary or maintenance motives they are
unlearned and are common to both animals and human beings.
However, the method of satisfying these motives are mediated
by learning and experience.
Hunger
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The hunger drive is activated by the hypothalamus when
the glucose level in the blood falls below a certain level. This is
an indication that the organism must eat something. As stated
above the hunger drive and satisfaction is mediated by learning
and habit. Emotional, social and economic factors also influence
what we eat.
Thirst
Procedure similar to that of hunger drive. The thirst drive
is activated when the level of sodium chloride (salt) in the blood
stream becomes too high thus causing cells’ dehydration. Like
hunger learning, individual differences and cultural factors
affect the satiation of the thirst drive.
Sleep
Sleep is so vital to the survival of the organism that we
spend about a third of our lives engaged in it. Lack of sleep leads
to a lot of physiological and psychological malfunctions.
Pain
The pain motive leads to avoidance learning. This motive is
very crucial to the survival of the organism. Like the other
primary motives how we react to pain is conditioned by learning
and experience.
Sex
The sex drive is the most important motive to the survival
of the human species. It is a physiological motive because it is
based on two hormones - testosterone for the males and
estrogen for the females. The females are only receptive to sex
during the estros cycle The sex motive is controlled by the
hypothalamus but the cerebral cortex is becoming more and
more involved. Learning and experience are more related to the
human sex drive thus removing the cyclical nature of the sex
drive unlike those of animals.
Maternal Drive.
This drive is stimulated when the female prolactin
hormone stimulates the mammary gland to start producing milk.
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The full breast causes discomfort to the woman, hence the need
to relieve the breast and to nourish the child. The famous by
Harlow and Harlow (1966) revealed that monkeys who were
normally by their mothers displayed the maternal drive more
than those who were raised in isolation from their mothers.
13.3.3. STIMULUS MOTIVES
This set of motives although innate are different from the
maintenance types because they depend
more on external
stimulations than the internal states of the individual.
Activity
The tendency to avoid idleness is common to all animals.
The motive is affected by several factors including age, sex, mod,
and health status.
Exploration and Curiosity
The need to explore, to learn, and to know is borne out of
curiosity. Curiosity is intellectual while exploration is spatial.
Manipulation
The need to feel, to touch is often directed at specific
objects.
Contact
This is the need to touch and be touched by others.
13.3.4. SOCIAL MOTIVES
This set of motives has to do with our relationships with
other people
Achievement Motive
This is the need to perform and achieve with excellence and
measure up to a high self-imposed level of standard.
The Power Motive
This is the need to gain power and control over others
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The Motivation to Avoid Success
According to Martina Horney women generally have this
fear of success as achieving too much may make them look
“masculine”, or “hard” and unattractive to men.
Affilliative Motive
Every human beings and indeed some animals have a need
to be with others of a sympathetic group especially in stress,
fear and anxiety producing situations. People who are first born
have a greater need for this motive more than those born later.
13.3.5. OTHER LEARNED MOTIVES
Fear Motives
This is the need to avoid or escape the source of fear. It is
learned in association with pain.
Aggression
Aggression is behavior whose intent is to harm another
either physically or psychologically.
While some like Freud have argued that it is innate others
such as Dollard argue that it is as a result of frustration
(Frustration Aggression Theory). However, men are said to be
more aggressive than men because of their possession of
testosterone, a male sex hormone that is associated with
aggression.
13.3.6. UNCONSCIOUS MOTIVES
According to Freud most human personality is derived from
unconscious motive. Freudian theory argues the conscious part
of human personality is only a tip of the iceberg. Most of what
motivate our behavior is buried in our unconscious. We are not
aware of unconscious although we try to satisfy them.
13.4 SUMMARY
Determining the reasons why human being behave is not an
easy task because a single behavior may be caused by so many
factors. The origins and directions of behavior could be to
physiological motives, social motives, to stimulus motives, or
even to motives we are not aware of.
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13.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
Motivation is the ______________ of behaviour
The 3 stages of motivation are _______________,
________________ and ___________
3.
Physiological
Motives
are
basic
to
_
____________________________________________
4.
Stimulus motives depend more on ____________
stimulations
5.
Social
motives
have
to
do
with
our
___________________
with others.
13.6 SUGGESTED READINGS
Barry, D. S. (1998). Psychology, Science and Understanding.
New York: McGraw-hill
13.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
Maslow, A. H. (1970) Motivation And Personality (2nd Ed.).
New York: Harper and Row.
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TOPIC 14:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
14.0 HUMAN EMOTIONS
-
-
-
-
-
-
65
14.1 INTRODUCTION
-
-
-
-
-
-
66
14.2 OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
66
14.3 IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
66
14.3.1 INTRODUCTION -
-
-
-
-
66
14.3.2 THEORIES OF EMOTIONS -
-
-
-
-
-
-
67
14.5 SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
-
-
-
67
14.6 REFERENCE
-
-
-
-
67
-
-
-
-
67
-
14.4 SUMMARY -
-
-
-
-
14.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
-
-
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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC: HUMAN EMOTIONS
14. 1 INTRODUCTION
This topic contains one of the complex aspects of human
behaviour. Emotion is a complex because it is affected by both
physiological and emotional experiences of both animals and
human being beings. Two theories are presented to illuminate
these issues.
Emotions are feelings and reactions to persons, objects and
situations. Every human being experiences one form of emotion
or the other daily. These feelings could be positive - love, joy,
ecstasy, pleasure, amusement or negative - hate, fear, anxiety,
agony and horror.
14.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic you should be able to
i.
Recognize the various dimensions of emotions;
ii.
Recognize the various types of emotions
14.3 IN-TEXT
14.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Emotion is a complex concept involving conscious
physiological and affective experiences and behavior of people.
Physiological changes associated with emotions account for the
many ways of expressing them. These physiological changes are
controlled by the endocrine glands and the autonomous nervous
system. The resulting emotional states are caused by increased
heart rate, deeper breathing, enlarged pupils, flushed face and
increased perspiration.
The various dimensions or expressions of emotions are
Interest, Joy, Surprise, Distress, Anger, Disgust, Contempt, Fear,
Shame/Shyness, Guilt.
14.3.2. THEORIES OF EMOTION
(i) James-Lang Theory
This theory states that emotions are caused by
physiological reactions and not by the direct perception of fear.
We are startled and beat a hasty retreat when we run into a
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snake because of our physiological responses not because we are
afraid of snakes.
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(ii) The Canon- Bard Theory
According to this theory the thalamic-hypothalamic
neurons in the brain cause both emotions and bodily reactions to
occur simultaneously, rather than one after the other. Nerve
impulses after passing through the thalamus are split some
getting to the cortex where the environmental stimulus is
perceived and the emotional reactions are made; the other
impulses get to he muscles where physical responses are
effected.
14.4 SUMMARY
Emotions consist of our affective and behavioral reactions
to persons, objects, conditions etc that we are confronted with.
Ten dimensions of emotion have been listed above. The two
theories of emotions are concerned with whether perception and
behavioral reactions occur simultaneously or whether they occur
one after the other.
14. 5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
Emotions are human _________________ to others
James-Lang Theory states that emotions are caused by
__________________ factors
3.
The Canon-Bard Theory states that the brain cause
both emotions
and
bodily
reactions
to
occur
________________
14.6 REFERENCES
Barry, D. S. (1998). Psychology, Science and Understanding.
New York: McGraw-hill
14.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
Enwuchola J. S (2003) Introduction to Psychology. Idah:
Adura Printers.
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SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
TOPIC 1:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Animal and Human behaviour
Seen/muscular and unseen/covert
Armchair and scientific
(a) Explanation
(b) Prediction
(c) Control
TOPIC 2:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
F
F
F
F
F
T
TOPIC 3:
(i)
Psychology is an old discipline because it has roots in
ancient
Greek philosophy
(ii) Psychology is a new discipline because scientific
psychology
started in 1879 with the establishment of a
laboratory in
Leipzig.
(iii) The father of modern psychology is Wilhem Wundt
(iv) The Rational Approach developed by Descartes states
that
the human body also has a soul.
(iv) The Empirical Approach developed by John Locke
states that the human mind is a tabula rasa at birth.
(v) The right side of the brain controls the left side of the
brain.
TOPIC 4:
(i)
Objective sensations, subjective feelings, and images
(ii) Adaptive functions of behaviour.
(iii) Observable, measurable behavior, not mind
(iv) "The whole is greater than the sum of the parts."
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(v) Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the unconscious
sources
of behaviour while the three systems of
personality are the id, ego, and the superego
TOPIC 5:
(i)
Clinical psychology is concerned with diagnoses and
treatment of disturbed and maladaptive behaviors
(ii) Counseling psychology is concerned with problems of
normal everyday living
(iii) Industrial and organizational psychologies are applied
social psychology
(iv) Development psychology examines the development
of
human beings from conception to death
(v) Ergonomics deals with man/machine relationships
TOPIC 6:
(i) The
and the
(ii) The
somatic
(iii) The
Central nervous system is made up of the brain
spinal cord.
peripheral nervous system is made up of the
and autonomic nervous systems.
functions of the following parts of the brain
Part
The cortex
The cerebellum
Function
Mental/intellectual
Muscular
activities/maintenance of
balance
The hypothalamus Hunger,
thirst,
sleep,
sweating,
temperature
control, the master gland
The frontal lobe
Thought processes, verbal
memory, logic, and the
sense of the future
The
reticular State of awareness and
system
alertness,
asleep
or
awake
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TOPIC 7:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
F
F
F
F
F
TOPIC 8:
(i) Another
term
for
classical
conditioning
is
associational
learning
(ii) In Pavlov’s experiment the dog formed a link between
the food and the bell
(iii) The conditioned stimulus is the bell
(iv) The unconditioned response is the salivation
(v) In spontaneous recovery the dog suddenly starts
salivating after a relapsed time without reinforcement.
TOPIC 9:
(i) Pressing the level is instrumental to obtaining food.
(ii) Positive reinforcement is the presentation of
something pleasant following the performance of a desired
activity
(iii) Negative reinforcement is following a behavior or
response by removing something unpleasant
(iv) Fixed schedule of reinforcement is presenting reward
after a fixed period of time
(v) Variable schedule of reinforcement is presenting
reward after an average time has elapsed.
TOPIC 10:
(i) Another term for observational learning is social
learning
(ii) In observational learning we learn by watching other
people or events.
(iii) Four phases are involved in observational learning
TOPIC 11:
(i)
Forgetting is easier.
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(ii)
The trace decay theory states that we forget because
of non-use of learned materials.
(iii) Interference theory states that we forget because of
confusion among learned materials.
TOPIC 12:
(i) Memory is retention learned materials
(ii) The sensory register is the reception hall of memory
(iii) Short term memory which is used by most students
involves “cramming”
(iv) The long term memory is like a large filling cabinet
(v) All information in the long term memory are available
but may not be accessible.
TOPIC 13:
(i)
(ii)
Motivation is the cause/energizer of behaviour
The 3 stages of motivation are a stimulus, an arousal,
a behavior.
(iii) Physiological Motives are basic to the survival of the
species
(iv) Stimulus
motives depend
more on external
stimulations
(v) Social motives have to do with our relationships with
others.
TOPIC 14:
(i)
Emotions are human reactions to other people,
animals and objects
(ii) James-Lang Theory states that emotions are caused by
physiological factors
(iii) The Canon- Bard Theory states that the brain causes
both emotions and bodily reactions to occur
simultaneously.
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TUTOR MARK ASSIGNMENT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
What is the difference between scientific psychology
and conventional wisdom?
Examine the strengths and weaknesses of the
following methods of studying psychology?
(i) Naturalistic Observations
(ii) Correlational techniques
(iii) Survey Methods
(iv) Experimentation
Discuss the main specific incidents that led to the
growth of modern psychology
Assess the contributions of structuralism to
psychological thinking and practice.
What do you consider as the main contributions of
gestalt school to psychology?
Examine the similarities and differences between
clinical and counseling psychology.
Explain the following terms:
(a) The Law of Effect
(b) Negative and Positive Reinforcement;
(c) Unconditioned and conditioned Response;
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