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Introduction to modern psychology
Short history of modern psychology
1879
First psychology laboratory
Wilhelm Wundt opens first experimental laboratory in psychology
at the university of Leipzig, Germany. He established the
psychology as an academic discipline.
There is enough
information about
psychic states that
they deserve to be
studied within a
specialized scientific
branch not as a part of
some other science
Short history of modern psychology
1883
First American psychology laboratory
G. Stanley Hall, a student of W. Wundt, establishes the
first US experimental laboratory at Johns Hopkins
University.
His interests were focused on childhood development
and evolutionary theory.
1896 – he was supervising the study Of Peculiar and
Exceptional Children which described a series of only
child oddballs as permanent misfits. For decades,
academics and advice columnists alike disseminated
his conclusion that an only child could not be expected
to go through life with the same capacity for
adjustment that siblings possessed. "Being an only
child is a disease in itself," he claimed.
Short history of modern psychology
1896
Functionalism
Early school of psychology focuses on the acts and functions of the
mind rather than its internal contents. Its most prominent American
advocates are William James and John Dewey, whose 1896 article
"The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" promotes functionalism.
Short history of modern psychology
1896
Psychoanalysis
The founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud,
introduces the term in a scholarly paper.
Freud's psychoanalytic approach asserts that
people are motivated by powerful, unconscious
drives and conflicts. He develops an influential
therapy based on this assertion, using free
association and dream analysis.
Psychoanalysis
The Unconscious
The concept of the unconscious was central to Freud's account of the mind. The
unconscious was first introduced in connection with the phenomenon of repression, to
explain what happens to ideas that are repressed. Freud stated explicitly that the
concept of the unconscious was based on the theory of repression. He postulated a
cycle in which ideas are repressed, but remain in the mind, removed from
consciousness yet operative, then reappear in consciousness under certain
circumstances.
The postulate was based upon the investigation of cases of traumatic hysteria, which
revealed cases where the behavior of patients could not be explained without
reference to ideas or thoughts of which they had no awareness. This fact, combined
with the observation that such behavior could be artificially induced by hypnosis, in
which ideas were inserted into people's minds, suggested that ideas were operative in
the original cases, even though their subjects knew nothing of them.
Psychoanalysis
Freud believed that the majority
of what we experience in our
lives, the underlying emotions,
beliefs, feelings, and impulses are
not available to us at a conscious
level. He believed that most of
what drives us is buried in our
unconscious. While buried there,
they continue to impact us
dramatically according to Freud.
The role of the unconscious is only one part of the model. Freud also believed that
everything we are aware of is stored in our conscious. Our conscious makes up a very
small part of who we are. In other words, at any given time, we are only aware of a
very small part of what makes up our personality; most of what we are is buried and
inaccessible.
The final part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we can
access if prompted, but is not in our active conscious. Its right below the surface, but
still buried somewhat unless we search for it. Information such as our telephone
number, some childhood memories, or the name of your best childhood friend is stored
in the preconscious.
Because the unconscious is so large, and because we are only aware of the very small
conscious at any given time, this theory has been likened to an iceberg, where the vast
majority is buried beneath the water's surface. The water, by the way, would represent
everything that we are not aware of, have not experienced, and that has not been
integrated into our personalities, referred to as the nonconscious.
Id, ego and super ego
According to Freud, we are born with our Id. The id is an important part of our
personality because as newborns, it allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud
believed that the id is based on our pleasure principle. In other words, the id wants
whatever feels good at the time, with no consideration for the reality of the
situation. When a child is hungry, the id wants food, and therefore the child
cries. When the child needs to be changed, the id cries. When the child is
uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold, or just wants attention, the id speaks up
until his or her needs are met.
The id doesn't care about reality, about the needs of anyone else, only its own
satisfaction. If you think about it, babies are not real considerate of their parents'
wishes. They have no care for time, whether their parents are sleeping, relaxing,
eating dinner, or bathing. When the id wants something, nothing else is important.
Ego Defense Mechanisms
We stated earlier that the ego's job was to satisfy the id's impulses, not offend the
moralistic character of the superego, while still taking into consideration the reality of
the situation. We also stated that this was not an easy job. Think of the id as the
'devil on your shoulder' and the superego as the 'angel of your shoulder.' We don't
want either one to get too strong so we talk to both of them, hear their perspective
and then make a decision. This decision is the ego talking, the one looking for that
healthy balance.
What drives the id, ego, and superego? According to Freud, we only have two drives;
sex and aggression.
Sex, also called Eros or the Life force, represents our drive to live, prosper, and
produce offspring. Aggression, also called Thanatos or our Death force, represents
our need to stay alive and stave off threats to our existence, our power, and our
prosperity.
Ego Defense Mechanisms
Now the ego has a difficult time satisfying both the id and the superego, but it doesn't
have to do so without help. The ego has some tools it can use in its job as the
mediator, tools that help defend the ego.
These are called Ego Defense Mechanisms or Defenses. When the ego has a difficult
time making both the id and the superego happy, it will employ one or more of these
defenses:
1901
Manual of Experimental Psychology
With publication of the Manual of Experimental Psychology, Edward Bradford
Titchener introduces structuralism to the United States. Structuralism is the view that
all mental experience can be understood as a combination of simple elements or
events. This approach focuses on the contents of the mind, contrasting with
functionalism. Structuralism fades after Titchener's death in 1927.
– The whole is more than the summary of its parts.
1905
IQ tests
Using standardized tests, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon develop a scale of general
intelligence on the basis of mental age. Later researchers refine this work into the
concept of intelligence quotient; IQ, mental age over physical age. From their
beginning, such tests' accuracy and fairness are challenged.
1913
Behaviorism
John B. Watson publishes "Psychology as Behavior,"
launching behaviorism. In contrast to psychoanalysis,
behaviorism focuses on observable and measurable
behavior.
Personality? Motivation?
Unconscious? Soul? Where
they are? Show them!
Because it is not possible we
will not deal with them.
Behaviourism an approach to psychology that combines elements of philosophy,
methodology, and theory.
The psychology should concern itself with the observable behavior of people and animals,
not with unobservable events that take place in their minds. The behaviorist school
maintains that behaviors as such can be described scientifically without recourse either to
internal psychological events or to hypothetical constructs such as thoughts and beliefs.
From early psychology in the 19th century, the behaviorist school ran concurrently with
the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements in psychology into the 20th century;
Its main influences were Ivan Pavlov, who investigated classical conditioning although he
did not necessarily agree with behaviorism or behaviorists; Edward Lee Thorndike, John B.
Watson who rejected introspective methods and sought to restrict psychology to
experimental methods, and B.F. Skinner who conducted research on operant conditioning.
In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the
cognitive revolution. While behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological thought
may not agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in practical therapeutic
applications, such as in cognitive–behavioral therapy that has demonstrable utility in
treating certain pathologies, such as simple phobias, and addiction. In addition,
behaviorism sought to create a comprehensive model of the stream of behavior from the
birth of a human to their death.
I.P. Pavlov – simple conditioning
In simple conditioning, the dog was presented with a stimulus such as a light or a
sound, and then food was placed in the dog's mouth. After a few repetitions of this
sequence, the light or sound by itself caused the dog to salivate. Bell became a signal
and the dog connected it with food.
Do not mix them up!!!
•
•
•
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Salivation when seeing food is unconditioned response.
Food is unconditioned stimulus.
Bell is conditioned stimulus.
Salivation when hearing the bell - conditioned response.
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning was developed by B.F Skinner in 1937 and
deals with the modification of "voluntary behaviour" or operant
behaviour. Operant behavior operates on the environment and is
maintained by its consequences.
Skinner created the Skinner Box or operant conditioning chamber
to test the effects of operant conditioning principles on rats.
Rat in a box with a small lever. When moving in the box the rat
accidentally crosses the level and hits is. And voila – here comes
the food. Rat – after she hits the lever accidentally few more times
learns to press it purposefully.
2 core tools :
Reward – everything
that is pleasant,
punishment =
unpleasant (relative –
100 year old cognac
offered to an abstinent).
Reinforcement – the
Operant behaviour is active one - this is the main difference between the
simple/classical and operant conditioning.
Classic conditioning: the object is passive and only reacts
Operant conditioning: the object creates the situations he/she wants.
To learn and maintain such behavior it has to be reinforced. In the experiment
described, the food was the means of reinforcement. The response that is not
reinforced starts to go out. When food stops falling, the rat stops to press the lever
after some time, too. The reinforcement is most efficient when it is irregular.
Operant behaviour in practice
When an employee knows that his boss will check him every day at 11 and 15.00, his
performance will be highest in these times. However when he knows that the boss will
check him several times a day at random, his performance will be higher during the
whole working hours.
Edward Lee Thorndike
Law of effect- if an association is followed by a
“satisfying state of affairs” it will be
strengthened (we repeat it) and if it is followed
by an “annoying state of affairs “ it will be
weakened (we stop doing it).
Law of exercise: has two parts; the law of use
and the law of disuse.
• Law of use- the more often an
association is used the stronger it
becomes.
• Law of disuse- the longer an association
is unused the weaker it becomes.
Law of recency- the most recent response is
most likely to reoccur.
Law of effect explains many behaviour with
unclear motivation – when someone repeats
certain behaviour, he gets something out of it (go
to work, lock door, regular quarrels with partner,
nasty child…)
1935
Gestalt psychology
Kurt Koffka, a founder of the movement, publishes his Principles of Gestalt
Psychology.
Gestalt means „whole“ or „essence“. That is why gestalt psychology asserts that
psychological phenomena must be viewed not as individual elements but as a
coherent whole (chair).
The whole is more than the summary of parts….
Study of learning processes: they introduced the concept of „learning by insight“ –
and „aha“ experience (you look at something and for certain period you do not
know what to do with it – and then – blick – and you know, you understand.
1954
Biopsychology
In his studies of epilepsy, neuroscientist Wilder G.
Penfield begins to uncover the relationship between
chemical activity in the brain and psychological
phenomena. His findings set the stage for widespread
research on the biological role in psychological
phenomena.
Another representative of biopsychology is Roger
Sperry (Nobel prize winner).
Biopsychologist dealt with a issue of inheritability – and untill now there is
no final conclusion: is a man product of his genes or are his qualities
influeced more by the environment? "nature versus nurture„
test
1954
Humanistic Psychology
In the wake of psychoanalysis (dark science saying that man is governed by his
primitive urges) and behaviorism (reducing man to a reacting animal), humanistic
psychology emerges as the "third force" in psychology. Led by Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow, who publishes Motivation and Personality in 1954, this approach
centers on the conscious mind, free will, human dignity, and the capacity for selfactualization.
Maslow as well as Rogers stressed the need of self-actualization and consideres
the self-actualization one of the basic needs of a man. Also, he develops
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Man always needs something – once he gets it he
needs something else.
1963
Cognitive psychology
Inspired by work in mathematics and other disciplines, psychologists begin to focus on
cognitive states and processes. George A. Miller's 1956 article "The Magical Number
Seven, Plus or Minus Two" on information processing is an early application of the
cognitive approach.
The main focus of cognitive psychologists is on the mental processes that affect
behavior – mainly attention (test with headphones), memory and perception.
Cognitive psychology is linked to the development of computers in 20th century.
Human mind was compared to computer. Nerves = hardware, ideas = software
(computer metaphore). Computer terminology is used frequently (input, output).
They expanded the psychology of behaviorism - they inserted into S ► R the third
part, cognitive processes and claimed that man is actively processing information and
stimuli – man is not just responsing, passive.
1976
Evolutionary psychology
Richard Dawkins publishes The Selfish Gene, which begins to popularize the idea of
evolutionary psychology. This approach applies principles from evolutionary biology to
the structure and function of the human brain. It offers new ways of looking at social
phenomena such as aggression and sexual behavior.
Social psychology
Studies how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual,
imagined, or implied presence of others.
Social psychologists therefore deal with the factors that lead us to behave in a given
way in the presence of others, and look at the conditions under which certain
behavior/actions and feelings occur. Social psychology is concerned with the way these
feelings, thoughts, beliefs, intentions and goals are constructed and how such
psychological factors, in turn, influence our interactions with others.
One of the most attractive psychological branches
It monitors and tries to understand how we cooperate and compete, how we get to
know other people, how people develop, the process of leader- sheep herd etc.
Albert Bandura – Bobo doll experiment- demonstrated how aggression is learned by
imitation. This was one of the first studies in a long line of research showing how
exposure to media violence leads to aggressive behavior in the observers
Stanley Milgram – focuses on obedience as a form of compliance.
Study - people were ready to administer shocks to a person in distress on
a researcher's command.
In the Stanford prison study, by Philip Zimbardo, a simulated exercise between
student prisoners and guards showed how far people would follow an adopted role. In
just a few days, the "guards" became brutal and cruel, and the prisoners became
miserable and compliant. This was initially argued to be an important demonstration
of the power of the immediate social situation and its capacity to overwhelm normal
personality traits
Learning process vicarious reinforcement