Download Describe and evaluate the historical and cultural conditions that

Describe and evaluate the historical and cultural conditions that gave rise to the
Learning Perspective.
Learning perspective is a hypothetical construct, and describes a process that cannot be
directly observed, but merely inferred based on observable behavior (Carter, 2008).
Behaviorism is dominated by two primary types of conditioning: classical and operant
(instrumental).
Classical conditioning, which was first developed by Ivan Pavlov, describes the
repetition of using a stimulus in order to elicit a desired response. Operant
conditioning on the other hand, is based on consequences of actions. For example, if
an action is positively reinforced, gradually it becomes learned, and vice versa. In order
to examine the birth and development of the learning perspective, it is essential to
look at the various theorists, their ideas and contribution to the world of Psychology.
Present amongst these behaviorists are conflicts between ideas, development of each
others’ ideas as well as production of entirely novel ideas.
One of the first influential psychologists, René Descartes (1596-1650), much like Plato
and Aristotle believed in the concept of nativism. Opposing most behaviorists following
his work, he believed that knowledge is inbuilt in our biological structure, and therefore
learning and experience play relatively small roles in the psychological make-up of a
human being (Carter, 2008). Famous for his quote, “I think, therefore I am” (We Didn’t
Start the Fire, 2008), Descartes’ ideas were opposing those of the majority of other
renowned psychologists.
Next in the chronological timeline, John Locke (1632-1704) reinforced the subject of
empiricism. This theory suggests that very few qualities, such as reflexes like breathing
or sucking (as a baby) are inbuilt. All our knowledge is based on education from
experiences. Further emphasizing this point, he claimed that a baby is born with tabula
rasa, meaning blank slate, which over time is transformed into knowledge and
understanding (Carter 2008). In addition, Locke had a great influence on the age of
enlightenment (Age of Enlightenment, Microsoft Encarta, 2008). This period defined the
questioning of ideas that had previously been taken for granted and opening one’s
mind to the possibilities of new explanations and answers. The rise of the learning
perspective links directly with this, as the concept of searching for explanations in the
area of psychology was just commencing as well.
The father of experimental psychology (We Didn’t Start the Fire), Wilhelm Wundt
(1832-1920) played a crucial role in the development of the learning perspective, as
well the concept of psychology itself. Firstly, he introduced the idea of introspection or
the analysis of inner ideas and experiences in order to study psychological
phenomenon. Moreover, the idea of running controlled experiments to test
hypotheses or research questions was founded primarily by Wundt. Much like Locke,
he also supported the concept of empiricism, or the acquisition of knowledge through
experience (Carter, 2008). He was also able to distinguish psychology as an individual
science, as well as establish the first institute for studying psychology. Finally, he
opened the first fully functioning psychology laboratory in 1879 as well (We Didn’t
Start the Fire, 2008). These achievements, amongst others are what leave Wundt’s
mark on the world of psychology today.
Known best for his theory of evolution, Charles Darwin (1809-1880) is another
important and widely studied behaviorist of the nineteenth century. Primarily, he
studied the biological or inherent changes observed in a species over hundreds of years
(Carter 2008). Not only did he study evolution, but also built up the idea of natural
selection, also known as survival of the fittest. He later published a book called ‘The
Origin of Species’ which turned out to be the source of a great deal of controversy, as it
questioned the Bible’s claim of the creation of man (We Didn’t Start the Fire, 2008).
Furthermore, in continuing Wilhelm Wundt’s work in experimental psychology, Darwin
pointed out the idea of experimenter bias, where the experimenter may influence the
results, by for example revealing his hypothesis to the subject of the test. Finally, he
justified the use of animals in experiments with the idea of anthropomorphism. This
expresses the attribution of human characteristics to animals or other inanimate
objects (Carter, 2008).
Overall, Darwin’s ideas and theories remain controversial and crucial topics even in our
world today.
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) first introduced the concept of operant or instrumental
conditioning. He claimed that animals learn by trial and error, and can be conditioned
with the use of positive or negative reinforcers (Carter, 2008). For example, in the case
of Thorndike’s famous Puzzle Box, he kept an animal trapped in this cage, with a lever
or button which would open the cage and allow the animal to escape. In a particular
experiment, he found that animals would use any object in reach in order to
accomplish the task (in this case press the lever), such as piling up planks of wood to
extend their reach. Soon, the animal learns that pressing the lever lets them escape,
which acts as the positive reinforcement. Eventually, this action is learned and
therefore the animal has been conditioned to press the lever (Reinemeyer, Erika.
1999).
Thorndike also pointed out that the time taken to escape decreased every time the
experiment was conducted. Through this testing, he introduced the Law of Effect,
which states that if the trial and error leads to success, the action is likely to be
reproduced. However, a failure is unlikely to be repeated. Finally, he stated that what
is learned most recently will be carried out best, which is know as the Law of Recency
(Carter, 2008).
One of the first theorists who supported the idea of classical conditioning was Ivan
Pavlov (1849-1936). Beginning his career in the field of science, he was studying the
digestive system in dogs. This then developed into his most famous experiment, where
he tested the conditioning of salivation of dogs. Divided into three basic stages, the
experiment describes how a dog’s reflex to produce saliva can be conditioned without
having to actually produce food.
During the first stage, food (the unconditioned stimulus) is brought in front of the dog,
producing saliva (the unconditioned response); at this point, no learning has taken
place. Next, along with the food, a bell is rung (the conditioned stimulus), again
producing the same unconditioned response of salivation; this stage describes the
process of learning. Finally, only the bell is rung and the dog still produces saliva, which
means the bell is now the conditioned stimulus, and therefore eliciting the saliva makes
salivation the conditioned response. At this point, the reflex has been learned. The law
of recency also comes into play, because if the bell is repeatedly rung, and there is no
reinforcement in the form of food, the conditioned response becomes unlearned.
Pavlov’s basic principle was that for learning to take place, there needs to be a stimulus
which affects one’s senses (Carter, 2008). He defined the conditioned reflex as
“elementary psychological phenomenon” (Nobel Lectures, 1967). Having studied this,
Pavlov later continued exploring the physiology of reflexes in animals.
Another behaviorist who worked in the field of classical conditioning was John Watson
(1878-1958). His most renowned experiment is known as the Little Albert experiment.
Just like Pavlov, he is testing the use of stimuli in order to elicit a desired response. He
used a young child, and presented him with a rat and bunny, both of which act as
unconditioned stimuli. This makes him happy, which is therefore the unconditioned
response. Next, the learning stage pertains making a loud and unpleasant noise
(conditioned stimulus) just when the rat is presented. As expected, this made the
young boy cry, which is still an unconditioned response. After a certain amount of
repetition, Watson is able to make Albert cry just by producing the rat. The rat
becomes the conditioned stimulus, and the child crying in turn is the conditioned
response. Another observation made by Watson was that presenting any similar
object, such as a fur coat, elicited the same response. The main issue surrounding this
experiment is the concept of ethics. While back then, this was not considered an
unethical or inhumane experiment today he would not be permitted to conduct such a
test.
Watson disagreed with Wilhelm Wundt, in that, he believed that anything that is not
observable is not worth studying, and so he was against the idea of introspection
altogether. The same concept goes for the existence of mind, where he argues that
conscious thought cannot be studied visually either. Later in his work, he went quite
extreme and claimed that the concept of the mind was entirely non-existent as well.
Watson also utilized Darwinism in several of his experiments, which represents the
continuity between animals and humans.
Finally, he combated experimenter bias with the claim that in order for an experiment
to be proved valid, it needs to be analyzed by various theorists in order to avoid
objectivity of any sort (Carter, 2008). He believed very strongly in his theories of
conditioning, which is demonstrated by the famous quote, “Give me a dozen healthy
infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I
might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant- chief and, yes, even beggar-man and
thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of
his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of
the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years.” (John B.
Watson, Wikipedia 2008)
Finally, the last behaviorist to look at is B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), an operant
conditioner. He believed that all complex behaviors can be broken into smaller, simpler
ones. This was illustrated through the use of pigeons, as he displayed that he could
condition them to roll a black ball to and from each other, with the use of positive or
negative reinforcement. Much like Watson, he also believed that internal mental
thoughts are not observable and so are not useful to analyze (We Didn’t Start the Fire,
2008). One of his most eminent contraptions is know as the Skinner box, which in
several ways resembles that of Thorndike’s puzzle box. In it, he kept an animal trapped,
with a lever or button that provided some sort of positive reinforcement. One particular
experiment describes a starved rat trapped in this cage, and when it presses the lever, a
small pellet of food is dropped into the cage. This acts as positive reinforcement for the
rat, and therefore encourages it to repeat this action. Slowly, it becomes learned or
conditioned into the rat (Rubin, Julian 2007).
There are various outlooks, theories and conflicts provided by a wide range of
behaviorists, which over the course of approximately four hundred hours gave rise to
the learning perspective. Conflicts arise between operant and classical conditioning, the
existence or validity of studying the existence of mind, nativism versus empiricism, and
many more. The experiments conducted in order to prove these theories help us
understand how each aspect of behaviorism is justified and how or why it is or isn’t true.
Having studied a wide range of behaviorists makes it clear as to how the concept of
behaviorism came to be.
Bibliography
 "Age of Enlightenment." Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopaedia . 2008. 12 Oct.
2008
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571679/Age_of_Enlightenment.html
 Understood the role of John Locke in the age of enlightenment, and how that links in with
the birth of the Learning Perspective.
 Brausch, Amy, and Alesia Hawkins. "We Didn't Start The Fire." History of
Psychology
.
Northern
Illinois
University.
lO
Oct.
2OO8
http://www3.niu.edu/acad/psych/Millis/History/2OO4/PsychologySong.htm#Rene%2
ODescartes Provides an overview of several psychologists: Rene Descartes, Wilhelm
Wundt, Charles Darwin and B.F. Skinner. Some quotes, some general information on
experiments, etc.
 "Ivan Pavlov - Biography." Nobel Lectures. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing
Company, l967. Rpt. in Les Prix Nobel. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Nobel Prize.org. l9O4.
The
Nobel
Foundation.
l3
Oct.
2OO8
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
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http://nobelprize.orgnobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/l9O4/pavlov-bio.html
Helped understand how he moved from the field of medicine into psychology and
detail of his theories as well.
"John B. Watson." Wikipedia. 9 Oct. 2OO8. l2
Oct.
2OO8
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Wats
on
I used the famous quote about 12 random infants.
Reinemeyer, Erika. Edward Lee Thorndike. May l999.
l3
Oct.
2OO8
http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/thor
ndike.htm
Path:
Psychology;Psychology
History;Thorndike.
Found detailed informatio about the theory behind Thorndike's Puzzle Box.
Rubin, Julian. "From Pavlov to Skinner Box." Following The Path of Discovery.
Sept. 2OO7. l2 Oct. 2OO8
http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/skinnerbox.html .
Explains the concept of Skinner's Box.