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Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace International Conference on Climate Change and Development 26-27 April 2007 Session III – Climate Change and Political Responsibilities Climate change and State responsibility H.E. Prof. Jan Szyszko, Minister of Environment, Republic of Poland According to many scientists the increase in the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes unfavourable climate change effects. This increase results from the combustion of carbon accumulated in hard coal, brown coal, peat, crude oil, gas and timber. It is also connected with land use. In Central Europe in the natural forest there are about 300 tonnes of carbon per hectare while in degradated forests or previously cultivated deforested areas there are about 20 tonnes per hectare (Figs. 1 and 2). Most scientists believe that the increasing content of CO2 creates an insulating layer around the globe, thus contributing to global warming. In consequence of global warming, glaciers and ice caps on the poles are thawing. This is supposed to increase the water level in the oceans and thus to threaten the inhabitants of islands and coasts with flooding. According to the supporters of the concept of global warming, the directions of sea currents and the power of air currents will change as well. Catastrophes caused by floods, hurricanes or droughts are expected to occur in various parts of the world. In consequence, hundreds or thousands of people might die, suffer injuries, or lose their possessions and homes. The effects of weather anomalies usually affect the poorest populations which sometimes have no choice, but to live on floodplains, on or at the base of unstable slopes and in dangerous, rather unstable buildings. Economic losses caused by environmental disasters amount to many billions of dollars each year. For the sake of objectivity it has to be noted that many scientists express a different opinion. They believe that climate change and climatic anomalies are natural phenomena and claim to find evidence to support their opinion in the recent history of the Earth. For example, in central Europe the warming following the last glaciation began several thousand years ago. The current interglacial period saw considerable warming (10,000 years ago) as well as cooling (8,000 years ago) which had no connection whatsoever to human activity. Regardless of whether global warming poses a real threat, the important fact is that in 1992 the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change came into effect, expressing the political will of the majority of Governments and Parliaments in the world. The basic goal of the Convention is to stabilize the concentrations of greenhouse gases (mainly CO2) in the atmosphere at a level which – according to the first group of scientists mentioned above – would prevent the dangerous anthropogenic interference with the global climate system. The Framework Convention on Climate Change has been ratified by almost all countries on the world. These countries can be divided into two groups: the group of economically developed countries listed in Annex I and the group of the remaining states including developing countries. The group of developed countries (Annex I) includes 25 highly developed countries listed in Annex II and 11 nations undergoing the process of transformation into market economies, such as Poland. According to the Convention, developed countries – in particular those listed in Annex II – are responsible for the reduction and stabilisation of the emissions of greenhouse gases on a global scale. At the same time, these countries are supposed to support the international economic system and to promote sustained growth and development of all the parties, and developing countries in particular. The emissions of greenhouse gases depend on economic development. Among the economically developed countries (Annex I), the United States emits the largest amount of greenhouse gases (36%). Poland with its 3% share occupies the 7th place behind economic powers such as Japan, Germany, Britain, Russia and Canada. In view of the need for economic development, the emissions of greenhouse gases can be reduced by new technologies, the use of more efficient energy sources (this includes renewable energy) and the increased role of natural sinks such as forests. Due to the lack of precision inherent to the framework nature of the Convention, efforts were undertaken to make it more precise. In 1997, a protocol, later called the Kyoto Protocol, was prepared during the Third Conference of the Parties in Kyoto (Japan). The Kyoto Protocol is an agreement which further specifies the reduction targets of the Framework Convention. On the average, the Kyoto Protocol obliges the parties listed in Annex I of the Convention to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases in the period 20082012 by 5.2% as compared in general to the base year 1990. The Kyoto Protocol also permits the use of so-called flexibility mechanisms, which are designed to facilitate the actual meeting of the reduction commitments by the Parties. The 2 flexibility mechanisms include: emissions trading, Joint Implementation and the Clean Development Mechanism. Emissions trading is permitted between the countries listed in Annex I and allows for the sale of a reduction surplus on the international market. One country can sell reductions exceeding its specified target to another Annex I country which has not managed to meet its reduction target. Joint Implementation also applies to the Annex I countries. Joint Implementation allows a country to finance upgrading of otherwise economically effective investment projects to higher environmental standards in another country. The decrease in emissions resulting from the co-operation is divided between both participants and added to their achievements in terms of reduction. The Clean Development Mechanism is composed of the joint implementation of projects between Annex I countries and developing countries. The Clean Development Mechanism aims at reducing CO2 emissions in developing countries, due to the use of state-of-the-art technologies financed by developed countries. The resulting decrease in emissions is added to the reduction achievements of the developed country which provides the investment. Apart from reductions achieved through efficient technology, i. e. measures aimed at the lowering of CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, reductions may include the increase in the natural absorption (sinks) of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, among other things, through afforestation (Fig ,4). The Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol are associated with environmental protection. Except for afforestation, the mechanisms presented above indicate that the Kyoto Protocol and the Climate Change Convention are, in fact, purely based on economic grounds and have a considerable impact on the interests of specific countries. Therefore, negotiations relating to the Framework Convention are extremely difficult, and the obligatory search for a compromise in the United Nations requires much understanding for the interests of all the parties (States) involved. In this situation, a success may be achieved if each State adopts the concept of sustainable development, according to the definition: “Sustainable development is a fast economic development combined with the rational use of environmental resources and respect for human rights”, connected with two fundamental ideas (Fig. 4): 1. Man is part of the natural environment. Thus, man has to use it and introduce changes to it. It is not only his right but also his duty 2. No human activity needs to deteriorate the condition of the natural environment The implementation of the sustainable development concept should be monitored e.g. with the following indicators: 3 - Increase in gross domestic product; - Unemployment drop; - Longer life and predominance of young classes in the human population; - Water quality improvements; - Reduced emissions of greenhouse gases according to the UN Framework Climate Convention and the Kyoto Protocol; - No disappearance (return) of native plants and animal species. There is also necessary to share what belongs to the state and to the society. The state should assure to the whole society as well to the all individuals good quality water, good quality ambient air and full protection of native biodiversity. The latest are covered by UNFCCC. I would like to describe the interests of different States using the example of Poland. Poland is one of the few countries which meet the provisions of the Framework Convention on Climate Change. In fact, all the forecasts indicate that Poland will meet and even exceed the requirements set in the Kyoto Protocol. Thus, with respect to the meeting of the obligations under the Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol, Poland is in a very advantageous position as compared to other developed countries. As soon as the Kyoto Protocol goes into effect, it can sell surplus reductions of emissions on the international market, participate in joint ventures to import state-of-the-art technologies and utilise the acquired reductions for rapid economic development which is linked to intensified production. It can also be active in the context of pure development mechanisms by exporting Polish know-how and technology to developing countries. There is another aspect worth considering, namely the opportunities created by the Climate Convention and the Kyoto Protocol for the rural areas in Poland. Rural areas have rendered so many services to the country. Bearing the cost of transformation, the rural areas have become poorer and poorer with increasing unemployment and a worsening education structure. The rural areas have always been the mainstay of Polish tradition and culture; with economic development rural areas have increasingly been considered a burden by many who have forgotten about the debt of gratitude they owe to these areas. Carbon absorption from the atmosphere by means of afforestation appears to provide opportunities for rural areas in particular. 4 The Polish countryside has over 2 million ha of poor soils which do not allow for effective farming. Experts estimate that after afforestation each hectare of such soil would be able to absorb the average amount of about 4 tonnes of carbon annually over a period of 100 years. In the context of the Kyoto Protocol, one tonne of absorbed carbon corresponds to a specific amount of money. This amount can be calculated as the cost of investment which would be required to achieve a 1 tonne reduction in terms of carbon dioxide emissions. It is estimated that the values corresponding to a 10 ha forest in Poland could subsist one family at an average standard of living. Thus, the afforestation of poor agricultural soils would create jobs, reduce unemployment, protect and improve the quality of our environmental resources (Figs. 5, 6, and 7), and at the same time multiply renewable sources of energy (timber). It would also support the migration of the rich from towns to the countryside – a process which has begun in Poland and is already prominent in highly developed countries. These people will need services as well as local agriculture. State Forests, supervising over 8 million ha of land, provides the administrative structure and personnel for the efficient implementation of the above-mentioned concept of afforestation on former agricultural soils. Due to its excellent, centralised management, State Forests is able to change forestry into a more efficient/intense and rapid regeneration of natural forests by means of increased cutting age or the introduction of deciduous species into existing coniferous stands, thereby fostering accumulation of carbon in mineral soils and species characteristic of the late stages of succession. It is necessary to keep in mind that afforestation as outlined above also supports the idea of restoration. It will yield more native and older forests, and thus help the protection of forests in Poland. The conditions in Poland differ from those in most Central and Western European countries. Even the afforestation of 2 million ha allows for large parts of the landscape to still have no trees. Therefore, in spite of efforts at afforestation, numerous possibilities exist to preserve open landscapes and the associated habitat types of high value (the key cultural landscape habitats which are listed in Annex II to the EU Habitats Directive). With the use of the efficient funding system already in place, State Forests can also initiate afforestation on selected sites. The possibility for a reliable inventory of carbon storage effects then provides a sound basis to collect charges for the reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from those causing the emissions. The funds acquired could then be used to initiate afforestation of private post-agricultural soils. Thus, State-owned and centrally managed forests in Poland seem to constitute an opportunity for the Polish 5 countryside, and this is why we should defend their present status. With the existing centralised management, State Forests can not only play a role in reshaping landscapes, but also stimulate economic development in underdeveloped areas. The Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol, in particular, provide an opportunity for the economic development of the country. It is an opportunity, but each of the flexible mechanisms of Kyoto Protocol (together with the sinks) requires careful economic analysis, the adoption of an appropriate long-term strategy of economic development and new low-emission installations related to with the principle of sustainable development. It must be underlined, that the State has to play a key role in the following areas: - improving financial instruments, scientific research and development, supporting international cooperation, education of society. Financial support The contribution of countries to climate change and their capacity to prevent and cope with its consequences vary enormously. The Convention and the Protocol therefore foresee financial assistance from Parties with more resources to those less endowed and more vulnerable. Developed countries should provide financial support for developing countries to implement the Convention. To facilitate this, the Convention established a financial mechanism to provide funds to developing country Parties. The Parties to the Convention assigned operation of the financial mechanism to the Global Environment Facility (GEF) on an on-going basis, subject to review every four years. The financial mechanism is accountable to the COP, which decides on its climate change policies, programme priorities, and eligibility criteria for funding, based on advice from the SBI. The Kyoto Protocol also recognizes, under its Article 11, the need for the financial mechanism to fund activities by developing country Parties. In addition to providing guidance to the GEF, Parties have established three special funds: the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) and Least 6 Developed Countries Fund (LDCF), under the Convention; and the Adaptation Fund (AF), under the Kyoto Protocol. Funding to climate change activities is also available through bilateral, regional and multilateral channels. In addition to the GEF and its implementing agencies, there are several agencies and institutions that support the implementation of project and programme activities which facilitated implementation of the Convention. For example: African Development Fund (AfDF) Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) European Commission (EC) European Investment Bank (EIB) Inter American Investment Corporation (IIC) Islamic Development Bank (IDB) Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) Nordic Investment Bank (NIB) OPEC Fund for International Development (OPEC Fund) The examples of these instruments on the state level are: Polish National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management, Australian AusAid. Scientific research and development There is regularly undertaken work on methodological and scientific matters relating to the Convention and the Kyoto Protocol process. Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) is dealing among others with issues of are land use, land-use change and forestry, adaptation, mitigation, research, systematic observation and bunker fuels (Fig 6, 7). Based on this it is necessary to introduce into force on the regional level the following subject: Sustainable human development and global change: landscape management in rural areas and greenhouse gases mitigation for biodiversity protection and economic growth. 7 International cooperation An important aspect of the Convention process is cooperation with relevant international organizations, such as scientific bodies, UN agencies, other conventions etc. The Convention itself calls on the COP to "seek and utilize” the services and cooperation of, and information provided by, competent international organizations and intergovernmental and non-governmental bodies". The aim is to ensure that the Convention process has the access to the best scientific information. The COP and its subsidiary bodies also seek to ensure that the climate change activities of other international organizations are coherent with the Convention process and respond to the needs of the Parties. Greenhouse gas emissions from the developed countries that have taken on reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol represented only 30% of global emissions in 2000. This share is expected to further decrease over the coming decades. Strengthened efforts by the developed countries post 2012 are therefore not enough but must form part of a global effort by all countries, in accordance with the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities. In a post-2012 climate change framework, the link between climate change and sustainable energy is vital, but the elements and instruments required have not yet been fully explored. Reducing energy consumption and meeting climate goals during periods of substantial economic growth is necessary. Some of the means are : energy efficiency and renewable energy, innovation, development and transfer of environmentally friendly technologies. The benefits are increased energy security, reduced air pollution and sustainable development. Energy-efficiency technologies offer win-win opportunities to lower production costs, enhance energy security and reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Governments are necessary actors in introducing policies that provide appropriate incentives for more energy-efficient, less polluting economic activity. Improving energy efficiency can boost economic growth and 8 competitiveness and - at the same time – reduce air pollution and emissions of greenhouse gases, thereby improving prospects for development. Measures that have been adopted in different countries to promote energy efficiency include: tax incentives for energy-efficient technologies; benchmarking programmes; standards and labelling programmes; voluntary or negotiated agreements between industry and government; building codes; demand-side management programmes; public awareness programmes; energy audits or assessments; information dissemination through websites and training courses. The development of clean energy technologies will help reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to sustainable development process in developed and developing countries. Progress in development of clean energy technologies has resulted from intense research and development activities, which respond to environmental and economic problems. Many of these technologies are now commercial, but some are still under process of research and there is a need for acceleration of their development. Under favourable conditions, modern biomass plants, small hydropower, wind and geothermal plants can produce energy, costs of which are comparable to the costs of production of conventional energy. Education National strategies for addressing climate change issues should involve the general public and important society groups, such as businesses environment, local leaders, associations etc. Governments – which are responsible for a small part of greenhouse gas emissions – have to convince businesses, local communities and individual citizens to contribute proportionally to activities that reduce direct emissions. Governments have several tools at their disposal for gaining public support. Policies can be used to raise the cost of activities that emit GHGs and reduce the costs of similar activities that do not. Regulations and standards can mandate changes in products and practices. Taxes and subsidies can be 9 adjusted to influence behaviour. Such policies and measures, however, can engender opposition, particularly from those concerned about the imposition of a new cost. Public information and education is therefore vital for generating public support for such policies. It can also encourage voluntary changes in habits that will lead to lower emissions. Many governments, as well as international organizations and NGOs are working effectively on raising public awareness. But the scale of concerns and challenges we face calls for intensification of these activities There is a need for further activities on national level and for international cooperation to develop and implement educational and training programs, strengthen national capacity building, raise public awareness and ensure sufficient access to information. 10