Download Climate change and State responsibility

Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace
International Conference on Climate Change and Development
26-27 April 2007
Session III – Climate Change and Political Responsibilities
Climate change and State responsibility
H.E. Prof. Jan Szyszko, Minister of Environment, Republic of Poland
According to many scientists the increase in the content of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere causes unfavourable climate change effects. This increase results
from the combustion of carbon accumulated in hard coal, brown coal, peat,
crude oil, gas and timber. It is also connected with land use. In Central Europe in
the natural forest there are about 300 tonnes of carbon per hectare while in
degradated forests or previously cultivated deforested areas there are about 20
tonnes per hectare (Figs. 1 and 2).
Most scientists believe that the increasing content of CO2 creates an insulating
layer around the globe, thus contributing to global warming. In consequence of
global warming, glaciers and ice caps on the poles are thawing. This is supposed
to increase the water level in the oceans and thus to threaten the inhabitants of
islands and coasts with flooding. According to the supporters of the concept of
global warming, the directions of sea currents and the power of air currents will
change as well. Catastrophes caused by floods, hurricanes or droughts are
expected to occur in various parts of the world. In consequence, hundreds or
thousands of people might die, suffer injuries, or lose their possessions and
homes. The effects of weather anomalies usually affect the poorest populations
which sometimes have no choice, but to live on floodplains, on or at the base of
unstable slopes and in dangerous, rather unstable buildings. Economic losses
caused by environmental disasters amount to many billions of dollars each year.
For the sake of objectivity it has to be noted that many scientists express a
different opinion. They believe that climate change and climatic anomalies are
natural phenomena and claim to find evidence to support their opinion in the
recent history of the Earth. For example, in central Europe the warming
following the last glaciation began several thousand years ago. The current interglacial period saw considerable warming (10,000 years ago) as well as cooling
(8,000 years ago) which had no connection whatsoever to human activity.
Regardless of whether global warming poses a real threat, the important fact is
that in 1992 the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
came into effect, expressing the political will of the majority of Governments
and Parliaments in the world. The basic goal of the Convention is to stabilize the
concentrations of greenhouse gases (mainly CO2) in the atmosphere at a level
which – according to the first group of scientists mentioned above – would
prevent the dangerous anthropogenic interference with the global climate
system.
The Framework Convention on Climate Change has been ratified by almost all
countries on the world. These countries can be divided into two groups: the
group of economically developed countries listed in Annex I and the group of
the remaining states including developing countries. The group of developed
countries (Annex I) includes 25 highly developed countries listed in Annex II
and 11 nations undergoing the process of transformation into market economies,
such as Poland. According to the Convention, developed countries – in
particular those listed in Annex II – are responsible for the reduction and
stabilisation of the emissions of greenhouse gases on a global scale. At the same
time, these countries are supposed to support the international economic system
and to promote sustained growth and development of all the parties, and
developing countries in particular.
The emissions of greenhouse gases depend on economic development. Among
the economically developed countries (Annex I), the United States emits the
largest amount of greenhouse gases (36%). Poland with its 3% share occupies
the 7th place behind economic powers such as Japan, Germany, Britain, Russia
and Canada. In view of the need for economic development, the emissions of
greenhouse gases can be reduced by new technologies, the use of more efficient
energy sources (this includes renewable energy) and the increased role of natural
sinks such as forests.
Due to the lack of precision inherent to the framework nature of the Convention,
efforts were undertaken to make it more precise. In 1997, a protocol, later called
the Kyoto Protocol, was prepared during the Third Conference of the Parties in
Kyoto (Japan). The Kyoto Protocol is an agreement which further specifies the
reduction targets of the Framework Convention.
On the average, the Kyoto Protocol obliges the parties listed in Annex I of the
Convention to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases in the period 20082012 by 5.2% as compared in general to the base year 1990. The Kyoto Protocol
also permits the use of so-called flexibility mechanisms, which are designed to
facilitate the actual meeting of the reduction commitments by the Parties. The
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flexibility mechanisms include: emissions trading, Joint Implementation and the
Clean Development Mechanism.
Emissions trading is permitted between the countries listed in Annex I and
allows for the sale of a reduction surplus on the international market. One
country can sell reductions exceeding its specified target to another Annex I
country which has not managed to meet its reduction target. Joint
Implementation also applies to the Annex I countries. Joint Implementation
allows a country to finance upgrading of otherwise economically effective
investment projects to higher environmental standards in another country. The
decrease in emissions resulting from the co-operation is divided between both
participants and added to their achievements in terms of reduction. The Clean
Development Mechanism is composed of the joint implementation of projects
between Annex I countries and developing countries. The Clean Development
Mechanism aims at reducing CO2 emissions in developing countries, due to the
use of state-of-the-art technologies financed by developed countries. The
resulting decrease in emissions is added to the reduction achievements of the
developed country which provides the investment.
Apart from reductions achieved through efficient technology, i. e. measures
aimed at the lowering of CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, reductions may
include the increase in the natural absorption (sinks) of greenhouse gases from
the atmosphere, among other things, through afforestation (Fig ,4).
The Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol are
associated with environmental protection. Except for afforestation, the
mechanisms presented above indicate that the Kyoto Protocol and the Climate
Change Convention are, in fact, purely based on economic grounds and have a
considerable impact on the interests of specific countries. Therefore,
negotiations relating to the Framework Convention are extremely difficult, and
the obligatory search for a compromise in the United Nations requires much
understanding for the interests of all the parties (States) involved. In this
situation, a success may be achieved if each State adopts the concept of
sustainable development, according to the definition: “Sustainable development
is a fast economic development combined with the rational use of environmental
resources and respect for human rights”, connected with two fundamental ideas
(Fig. 4):
1. Man is part of the natural environment. Thus, man has to use it and
introduce changes to it. It is not only his right but also his duty
2. No human activity needs to deteriorate the condition of the natural
environment
The implementation of the sustainable development concept should be
monitored e.g. with the following indicators:
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- Increase in gross domestic product;
- Unemployment drop;
- Longer life and predominance of young classes in the human
population;
- Water quality improvements;
- Reduced emissions of greenhouse gases according to the UN
Framework Climate Convention and the Kyoto Protocol;
- No disappearance (return) of native plants and animal species.
There is also necessary to share what belongs to the state and to the society. The
state should assure to the whole society as well to the all individuals good
quality water, good quality ambient air and full protection of native biodiversity.
The latest are covered by UNFCCC.
I would like to describe the interests of different States using the example of
Poland.
Poland is one of the few countries which meet the provisions of the Framework
Convention on Climate Change. In fact, all the forecasts indicate that Poland
will meet and even exceed the requirements set in the Kyoto Protocol. Thus,
with respect to the meeting of the obligations under the Framework Convention
on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol, Poland is in a very advantageous
position as compared to other developed countries. As soon as the Kyoto
Protocol goes into effect, it can sell surplus reductions of emissions on the
international market, participate in joint ventures to import state-of-the-art
technologies and utilise the acquired reductions for rapid economic development
which is linked to intensified production. It can also be active in the context of
pure development mechanisms by exporting Polish know-how and technology
to developing countries.
There is another aspect worth considering, namely the opportunities created by
the Climate Convention and the Kyoto Protocol for the rural areas in Poland.
Rural areas have rendered so many services to the country. Bearing the cost of
transformation, the rural areas have become poorer and poorer with increasing
unemployment and a worsening education structure. The rural areas have always
been the mainstay of Polish tradition and culture; with economic development
rural areas have increasingly been considered a burden by many who have
forgotten about the debt of gratitude they owe to these areas. Carbon absorption
from the atmosphere by means of afforestation appears to provide opportunities
for rural areas in particular.
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The Polish countryside has over 2 million ha of poor soils which do not allow
for effective farming. Experts estimate that after afforestation each hectare of
such soil would be able to absorb the average amount of about 4 tonnes of
carbon annually over a period of 100 years. In the context of the Kyoto Protocol,
one tonne of absorbed carbon corresponds to a specific amount of money. This
amount can be calculated as the cost of investment which would be required to
achieve a 1 tonne reduction in terms of carbon dioxide emissions. It is estimated
that the values corresponding to a 10 ha forest in Poland could subsist one
family at an average standard of living. Thus, the afforestation of poor
agricultural soils would create jobs, reduce unemployment, protect and improve
the quality of our environmental resources (Figs. 5, 6, and 7), and at the same
time multiply renewable sources of energy (timber). It would also support the
migration of the rich from towns to the countryside – a process which has begun
in Poland and is already prominent in highly developed countries. These people
will need services as well as local agriculture.
State Forests, supervising over 8 million ha of land, provides the administrative
structure and personnel for the efficient implementation of the above-mentioned
concept of afforestation on former agricultural soils. Due to its excellent,
centralised management, State Forests is able to change forestry into a more
efficient/intense and rapid regeneration of natural forests by means of increased
cutting age or the introduction of deciduous species into existing coniferous
stands, thereby fostering accumulation of carbon in mineral soils and species
characteristic of the late stages of succession.
It is necessary to keep in mind that afforestation as outlined above also supports
the idea of restoration. It will yield more native and older forests, and thus help
the protection of forests in Poland. The conditions in Poland differ from those in
most Central and Western European countries. Even the afforestation of 2
million ha allows for large parts of the landscape to still have no trees.
Therefore, in spite of efforts at afforestation, numerous possibilities exist to
preserve open landscapes and the associated habitat types of high value (the key
cultural landscape habitats which are listed in Annex II to the EU Habitats
Directive).
With the use of the efficient funding system already in place, State Forests can
also initiate afforestation on selected sites. The possibility for a reliable
inventory of carbon storage effects then provides a sound basis to collect
charges for the reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from those
causing the emissions. The funds acquired could then be used to initiate
afforestation of private post-agricultural soils. Thus, State-owned and centrally
managed forests in Poland seem to constitute an opportunity for the Polish
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countryside, and this is why we should defend their present status. With the
existing centralised management, State Forests can not only play a role in reshaping landscapes, but also stimulate economic development in
underdeveloped areas.
The Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol, in
particular, provide an opportunity for the economic development of the country.
It is an opportunity, but each of the flexible mechanisms of Kyoto Protocol
(together with the sinks) requires careful economic analysis, the adoption of an
appropriate long-term strategy of economic development and new low-emission
installations related to with the principle of sustainable development.
It must be underlined, that the State has to play a key role in the following areas:
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improving financial instruments,
scientific research and development,
supporting international cooperation,
education of society.
Financial support
The contribution of countries to climate change and their capacity to prevent
and cope with its consequences vary enormously. The Convention and the
Protocol therefore foresee financial assistance from Parties with more
resources to those less endowed and more vulnerable.
Developed countries should provide financial support for developing
countries to implement the Convention. To facilitate this, the Convention
established a financial mechanism to provide funds to developing country
Parties.
The Parties to the Convention assigned operation of the financial mechanism
to the Global Environment Facility (GEF) on an on-going basis, subject to
review every four years. The financial mechanism is accountable to the COP,
which decides on its climate change policies, programme priorities, and
eligibility criteria for funding, based on advice from the SBI.
The Kyoto Protocol also recognizes, under its Article 11, the need for the
financial mechanism to fund activities by developing country Parties.
In addition to providing guidance to the GEF, Parties have established three
special funds: the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) and Least
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Developed Countries Fund (LDCF), under the Convention; and the
Adaptation Fund (AF), under the Kyoto Protocol.
Funding to climate change activities is also available through bilateral,
regional and multilateral channels.
In addition to the GEF and its implementing agencies, there are several
agencies and institutions that support the implementation of project and
programme activities which facilitated implementation of the Convention. For
example:
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African Development Fund (AfDF)
Caribbean Development Bank (CDB)
European Commission (EC)
European Investment Bank (EIB)
Inter American Investment Corporation (IIC)
Islamic Development Bank (IDB)
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
Nordic Investment Bank (NIB)
OPEC Fund for International Development (OPEC Fund)
The examples of these instruments on the state level are:
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Polish National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water
Management,
Australian AusAid.
Scientific research and development
There is regularly undertaken work on methodological and scientific matters
relating to the Convention and the Kyoto Protocol process. Subsidiary Body for
Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) is dealing among others with
issues of are land use, land-use change and forestry, adaptation, mitigation,
research, systematic observation and bunker fuels (Fig 6, 7). Based on this it is
necessary to introduce into force on the regional level the following subject:
Sustainable human development and global change: landscape management in
rural areas and greenhouse gases mitigation for biodiversity protection and
economic growth.
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International cooperation
An important aspect of the Convention process is cooperation with relevant
international organizations, such as scientific bodies, UN agencies, other
conventions etc. The Convention itself calls on the COP to "seek and utilize”
the services and cooperation of, and information provided by, competent
international organizations and intergovernmental and non-governmental
bodies". The aim is to ensure that the Convention process has the access to the
best scientific information. The COP and its subsidiary bodies also seek to
ensure that the climate change activities of other international organizations are
coherent with the Convention process and respond to the needs of the Parties.
Greenhouse gas emissions from the developed countries that have taken on
reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol represented only 30% of
global emissions in 2000. This share is expected to further decrease over the
coming decades.
Strengthened efforts by the developed countries post 2012 are therefore not
enough but must form part of a global effort by all countries, in accordance with
the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective
capabilities.
In a post-2012 climate change framework, the link between climate change and
sustainable energy is vital, but the elements and instruments required have not
yet been fully explored.
Reducing energy consumption and meeting climate goals during periods of
substantial economic growth is necessary.
Some of the means are :
 energy efficiency and renewable energy,
 innovation,
 development and transfer of environmentally friendly technologies.
The benefits are increased energy security, reduced air pollution and sustainable
development. Energy-efficiency technologies offer win-win opportunities to
lower production costs, enhance energy security and reduce air pollution and
greenhouse gas emissions.
Governments are necessary actors in introducing policies that provide
appropriate incentives for more energy-efficient, less polluting economic
activity. Improving energy efficiency can boost economic growth and
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competitiveness and - at the same time – reduce air pollution and emissions of
greenhouse gases, thereby improving prospects for development.
Measures that have been adopted in different countries to promote energy
efficiency include:
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tax incentives for energy-efficient technologies;
benchmarking programmes;
standards and labelling programmes;
voluntary or negotiated agreements between industry and
government;
building codes;
demand-side management programmes;
public awareness programmes;
energy audits or assessments;
information dissemination through websites and training courses.
The development of clean energy technologies will help reduce air pollution and
greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to sustainable development process in
developed and developing countries. Progress in development of clean energy
technologies has resulted from intense research and development activities,
which respond to environmental and economic problems. Many of these
technologies are now commercial, but some are still under process of research
and there is a need for acceleration of their development. Under favourable
conditions, modern biomass plants, small hydropower, wind and geothermal
plants can produce energy, costs of which are comparable to the costs of
production of conventional energy.
Education
National strategies for addressing climate change issues should involve the
general public and important society groups, such as businesses environment,
local leaders, associations etc. Governments – which are responsible for a
small part of greenhouse gas emissions – have to convince businesses, local
communities and individual citizens to contribute proportionally to activities
that reduce direct emissions.
Governments have several tools at their disposal for gaining public support.
Policies can be used to raise the cost of activities that emit GHGs and reduce
the costs of similar activities that do not. Regulations and standards can
mandate changes in products and practices. Taxes and subsidies can be
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adjusted to influence behaviour. Such policies and measures, however, can
engender opposition, particularly from those concerned about the imposition
of a new cost. Public information and education is therefore vital for
generating public support for such policies. It can also encourage voluntary
changes in habits that will lead to lower emissions.
Many governments, as well as international organizations and NGOs are
working effectively on raising public awareness. But the scale of concerns
and challenges we face calls for intensification of these activities
There is a need for further activities on national level and for international
cooperation to develop and implement educational and training programs,
strengthen national capacity building, raise public awareness and ensure
sufficient access to information.
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