Download Expectancy

Behaviorism
• All that matters is
1) A persons behavior
2) A persons environment
Philosophical Roots
• 1) Empiricism
• 2) Associationism
• 3) Hedonism
Types of Learning
• 1) Habituation
• 2) Classical Conditioning
• 3) Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
• Edward Thorndike
Gradually it escapes quicker
A specific response become “strengthened” by being paired
with a pleasant outcome
Law of Effect
• "Of several responses made to the same situation those
which are accompanied or closely followed by
satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal,
be more firmly connected with the situation, so that,
when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; those
which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort
to the animal will, other things being equal, have their
connections to the situation weakened, so that, when it
recurs, they will be less likely to occur.
• Note: It is missing information about the internal state of
the animal
– Thorndike used hungry cats and rats!
Clark Hull
Needs
• Behavior is not just a function of the
environment but also. . .
• Properties of the organism
All animals have
certain needs
(food)
Creates drives
(drive for food)
Reducing drive (by
eating) reinforces the
behavior (eating)
Learning
• Both Hull and Thorndike felt their learning
was the same as Pavlov’s classical
conditioning
Hot and Cold Game
Skinner
B. F. Skinner
Noted differences between the types of learning.
How is classical conditioning different then either Thorndike’s or Hull’s
theories?
Operant Conditioning
• Classical = animal does
nothing to its environment.
• Operant = The animal
alters its environment.
Reinforcement Theory
• Operant Conditioning
– Used to control behavior
• Behavior
• Reward
• Behaviors that are rewarded are more
likely to be performed in the future
Reinforcement Theory
• Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement Theory
• Operant Conditioning
Skinner Box
Skinner Box
Skinner Box
Skinner Box
• Sniffy Program
Operant Conditioning
• Superstitious behavior
– Baseball players
• Shaping behavior
– Getting him to open the car door
– Skinner legend
Group Activity
• Identify one behavior in yourself that you
would like to change
• Determine a system of rewards and
punishments that you could use to change
this behavior
• Do you think this would work?
Did Skinner really raise his
daughter in a Skinner Box?
Picture from Ladies' Home Journal: "Baby in a Box.”
Question
• Why are you going to college?
• What are you dating someone?
• Why are you listening to this lecture?
• You do all of these things because of a
long history of rewards and punishments!
Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
• Classical
– “Reactions” to the world
– Emotions
– Traits: anxiousness, neuroticism, depression
• Operant
– “Actions” toward the world
– Behaviors
– Traits: Extraversion, argumentativeness, kindness
Behaviorism
• Pros
– Controlling behavior
– Focus on the observable
• Cons
– Mental life
• Motivation
• Thought
• Cognition
Next theories
• Keep the empirical rigor of behaviorism and add. . . .
• Cognition, thought, motivation, etc.
• Social learning
– In Skinner box animals are alone
• We learn by watching others!
• Treat humans as active in selecting their environment
– In Skinner box a rat is placed in there
• We select our environments and they will change because we are in
them
– You at a party!
Theories
• Dollard and Miller’s Social Learning
Theory
• Rotter’s Social Learning Theory
• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Dollard & Miller
Dollard and Miller
• Combines behaviorism and Freudian theory!
Habit Hierarchy
• All the behaviors a person might do
• From most likely to least likely
Habit Hierarchy
Talk to Ponch
Get a drink
Talk to a woman
In a bar
Comb hair
But, this can change based
on reinforcement or
punishment
Flex muscles
Activity
• Create your own habit hierarchy for being
in the classroom
• List Top 5 habits
• Why do you think these are the top 5?
• How do you think we could change these?
• In order to learn -- John (an organism) must
• 1) Want something (a woman)
• 2) Notice something (perceive the woman)
• 3) Do something (talk to the woman)
• 4) Get something (a smile)
Note
• This is already different than behaviorism
• Dollard and Miller
– Motivation (want something)
– Perception (notice something)
Note
• This is already different than behaviorism
• Behaviorism
– Learning changes behavior
• Dollard and Miller
– Learning changes the HH
• HH is a non-observable psychological entity
What do you want?
• Drives
Need
Drive
• A psychological tension that feels good
when it is reduced.
Drives
• Primary Drives
• Biologically built-in drives
– Food, water, sex, avoid pain, etc.
• Secondary Drives
• Psychologically based
– Love, prestige, money, power, etc.
– Learned by being paired with primary drives
Imagine
John asks the Charlie's Angels out on a date
John gets rejected!
Is upset so he goes riding with Ponch
Arrests a person for no reason at all!
Why?
• Freud
• Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
– Natural reaction for any person (or animal) to
being blocked from a goal, will be the urge to
lash out or injure.
– The more important the goal, the greater will
be the aggressive impulse
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
• Different than Freud
– No ID is needed (or ego)
• Same as Freud
– Displacement
• e.g., riots
– Sublimation (can be constructive)
What is fun?
The story about me in the book
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
• Conflict between desire and fear
• Changes over time
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
• 1) An increase in drive strength will increase the
tendency to approach or avoid a goal
VS.
If John wants to relieve a drive more than Ponch, John will also
want the goal more!
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
• 2) Whenever there are two competing responses, the
stronger one (the one with the greater drive) will win out.
Drive: Companionship
Drive: Avoid rejection
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
• 3) The tendency to approach a positive goal
increases the closer the one is to the goal
John sees the Angels across the room
John talks to them
John asks them back to his place
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
• 3) The tendency to approach a positive goal
increases the closer the one is to the goal
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
• 4) The tendency to avoid a negative goal also
increases the closer one is to the goal
John sees the Angels across the room
John talks to them
John asks them back to his place
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
• 5) Tendency 4 is stronger than tendency 3.
100
Strengy of tendency
Avoidance
Approach
0
Far from goal
Near goal
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
• 5) Tendency 4 is stronger than tendency 3.
100
Strengy of tendency
Avoidance
Approach
0
Far from goal
Near goal
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
• 5) Tendency 4 is stronger than tendency 3.
100
Strengy of tendency
Avoidance
Approach
0
Far from goal
Near goal
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
• 5) Tendency 4 is stronger than tendency 3.
100
Strengy of tendency
Avoidance
Approach
0
Far from goal
Near goal
Group Activity
• Have you ever had something in the future
that you were both looking forward to and
dreading?
• Did your feelings about it change over time
in the way Dollard and Miller describe?
Defense Mechanisms
• Freud’s explanation
• Dollard and Miller
• Negative Reinforcement
– A reward that consists of the withdrawal of
aversive stimuli
Defense Mechanisms
• Negative Reinforcement
Put your hand in the fire!
• Any stopping of pain or anxiety is negatively reinforcing
• The behavior that occurred before such cessation will
become more likely
Defense Mechanisms
• Dollard and Miller
• DM are cognitive behaviors that are
negatively reinforced because they
remove anxiety
Defense Mechanism
• Denial
• Repression
• Reaction Formation
• Projection
• Rationalization
• Intellectualization
Defense Mechanisms
• Freud vs. Dollard and Miller
• Freud was right . . . . Perhaps too
complicated
• Principle of Parsimony
Rotter’s Social Learning Theory
Blamoooooo
All games cost $10
Jackpot: $100
Odds: 50%
Jackpot: $1,000
Odds: .000001%
Rotter
• Behaviorism would predict you would go
for the biggest reward
• However, your beliefs (i.e., expectancies)
are also important!
• Expectancy Value Theory
Elements
• Behavior Potential (BP)
• The probability that you will perform the
behavior in question
• Higher the BP, more likely you will do it!
Elements
• Expectancy (E)
• A persons belief about how likely a
behavior will bring about a goal
Expectancy
•If you ask a person out will they say yes?
• If you think so:
– “Asking out” has high expectancy
• If you do not think so:
– “Asking out” has low expectancy
Expectancy
• It is a belief
• Objective odds matter less then subjective
odds
• Lottery!
Expectancy
• Specific (E’)
• Belief about a certain behavior at a certain
time
• “If I ask Batman out today at lunch will he
say yes?”
Questionnaire
• LC questionnaire
Expectancy
• Specific (E’)
• Belief about a certain behavior at a certain time
• “If I ask Batman out today at lunch will he say
yes?”
• General (GE)
• Belief if anything a person does is likely to make
a difference
• “Nothing I do is going to matter anyway – why
bother asking Batman or anyone out!”
Expectancy
• General Expectancy
• Like a trait
• High GE (Internal locus of control)
– Energetic, highly motivated
• Low GE (External locus of control)
– Depressed, low motivation
Expectancy
• Both E’ and GE are important
GE
E  E '
N
E = Expectancy for a behavior to bring about a reward
GE = General expectancy
E’ = Specific expectancy for the behavior
N = number of times you have been in this situation
Elements
• Reinforcement Value (RV)
• The subjective benefit of a reward
• How much do you really care about the
outcome?
Reinforcement Value
• How much do you care about getting that date?
• How much do you care if you are rejected?
• How much do you care about doing school work
instead?
• Note: RV is a relative term!
Putting it all together
• How do you predict BP?
BP f ( E & RV )