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Chapter Two:
Theories of Development
What Theories Do

Developmental theory—systematic
statement of principles and
generalizations that provides a
coherent framework for studying
development
What Theories Do, cont.

Theories

form basis for hypotheses that can be
tested by research studies



formulating right question is more difficult that
finding right answers
generate discoveries
offer insight and guidance by providing
coherent view
What Theories Do, cont.

Different Types

grand theories—comprehensive, traditional
theories


minitheories—theories that focus on
specific area of development


originated in psychology
originated more in sociology through study of
social groups and family structures
emergent theories—new, comprehensive
groupings of minitheories

multidisciplinary approach includes historic events
and genetic discoveries
Grand Theories

Grand Theories—powerful framework
for interpreting and understanding
change and development that applies to
all individuals in all contexts, across all
contents
Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychoanalytic theory interprets
human development in terms of
motives and drives
Freud’s Ideas


Sigmund Freud
Three stages of development in first six
years

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
oral, anal, phallic
in early childhood, latency and then
adolescence, genital
each stage includes potential conflicts

how a person experiences and resolves conflicts
determines personality and patterns of behavior
Erikson’s Ideas

Erik Erikson, a follower of Freud,
proposed 8 developmental stages, each
characterized by a developmental crisis
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trust vs. mistrust
autonomy vs. shame
initiative vs. guilt
industry vs. inferiority
identity vs. role diffusion
intimacy vs. isolation
generativity vs. stagnation
integrity vs. despair
Behaviorism

Behaviorism is built on laws of
behavior and processes by which
behavior is learned

focus: ways we learn specific behaviors
that can be described, analyzed, and
predicted with scientific accuracy
Laws of Behavior


Conditioning—any process in which
behavior is learned
Classical conditioning—Ivan Pavlov

process by which a neutral stimulus become
associated with a meaningful stimulus


stimulus and response (respondent conditioning)
Operant conditioning—B. F. Skinner

process by which a response is gradually
learned via reinforcement or punishment

also called instrumental conditioning
Social Learning


Extension of learning theory that
includes modeling which involves people
observing behavior and patterning their
own after it
Modeling



process in which people observe, then copy
behavior
Alfred Bandura—most likely to occur if model
is admired or observer is inexperienced
self-efficacy motivates people to change
themselves and their contexts
Cognitive Theory


Focuses on the structure and
development of thought processes,
which shape perceptions, attitudes, and
actions.
Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages




sensorimotor
pre-operational
concrete operational
formal operational
Cognitive Theory, cont.


Cognitive equilibrium—state of mental
balance
Cognitive adaptation—assimilation,
accommodation of ideas
Emergent Theories

Emergent theories arise from several
accumulated minitheories and may be
the new systematic and comprehensive
theories of the future
Sociocultural Theory

Seeks to explain growth of individual
knowledge, development, and
competencies in terms of guidance,
support, and structure supplied by the
society

human development is the result of dynamic
interaction of the developing persons and
their surrounding culture
Guided Participation


Guided participation—tutor engages
learner in joint activities, providing
instruction and direct involvement in
learning
Apprenticeship in thinking—mentor
provides instruction and support needed
by novice
The Zone of Proximal
Development

Zone of proximal development—range of
skills learner can perform with
assistance but not independently


learner is drawn into learning by teacher
Cultural variations: Basic principles are
universal, but skills, challenges, and
opportunities vary from culture to
culture, depending on the values and
structures of the culture’s society
Epigenetic Theory

Emphasizes the interaction between
genes and the environment—the newest
developmental theory


stresses that we have powerful instincts and
abilities that arise from our biological
heritage. Timing and pace of certain
developmental changes are genetically
guided
performism—everything is set in advance by
genes and then is gradually manifested in
the course of maturation
With, On, and Around
the Genes

Genetic refers to the entire genome
that makes up the particular genes that
cause each person to be unique


each human has a genetic foundation that is
unique
epigenetic theory acknowledges the
powerful instincts and abilities that arise
from our biological heritage
With, On, and Around the Genes, cont.

Epi = with, around, before, after, on, or
near = surrounding factors



epigenetic—surrounding factors that affect
expression of genetic instructions
some surrounding factors may be stress
factors; others may be facilitating factors
Genetic-environmental Interactions

genes never function alone
Genetic Adaptation

Adaptation of the Genes

selective adaptation means that genes for
the traits that are most useful will become
more frequent, thus making survival of
species more likely
What Theories Can
Contribute



Psychoanalytic theory has made us
aware of importance of early childhood
experiences
Behaviorism has shown effect of
immediate environment on learning
Cognitive theory helps us understand
how intellectual process and thinking
affect actions
What Theories Can Contribute, cont.


Sociocultural theory has reminded us
that development is embedded in a rich
and multifaceted context
Epigenetic theory emphasizes
interactions between inherited forces
and immediate contexts
Other Theories

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Brief Solution Focused
Narrative
Art
Play
PsychoDrama
Object-Relations
Jungian
Transactional Analysis
12 - step
Social Learning
Biblio-therapy
What Theories Can Contribute, cont.

Eclectic perspective


approach taken by most developmentalists
in which they apply aspects of each of the
various theories rather than staying with
just one
“Integrated” is better
Eclectic verses Integrated

Eclectic picks from multiple sources without common
thread:
Integration

Integration picks from theories with purpose and
with commonality
Level of Concepts
Technique
Template
Theory
The Nature-Nurture
Controversy



Is it heredity or environment that
shapes us?
How much is a result of any given
characteristics, behavior or pattern
of development is a result of genes
and how much is a result of experiences
Policy and practice: nature/nurture
theories are implicit in many public
policies
Theoretical Perspectives on
Hyperactivity and Homosexuality


AD/HD and homosexuality—How and to
what extent are nature and nurture
involved in each case?
Evidence from AD/HD research that it
can come from either
Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity
and Homosexuality, cont.

Earlier assumptions about homosexuality:
more nurture than nature. As hypotheses
tested, nurture was revealed as less
crucial



sexual orientation may be a matter of nature
sexual expression may be a matter of cultural
attitude (nurture) but not sexual orientation
evidence supporting nature as main factor
(e.g., affect of genetic linkage, prenatal
hormones)
Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity
and Homosexuality, cont.


Ideology often adds to complexity and
polarization of opinions on many
subjects when nature and nurture are
considered
Important to separate assumptions from
facts

done via research and testing of hypotheses
Chapter Three:
Heredity and Environment
The Genetic Code

Development that is dynamic, ongoing,
interactional, and unique; just four
chemicals are the basic building blocks
of the genetic code
What Genes Are


Genes are made up of DNA—the
complex protein code of genetic
information
DNA directs the form and function of
each body cell as it develops
What Genes Are, cont.

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
Each molecule of DNA is called a
chromosome
Chromosomes contain instructions to
make all the proteins a living being needs
The complete packet of instructions is
called a genome
Each person has 23 sets of chromosomes,
or 46 chromosomes
The human genome contains 30,000 genes
The Beginnings of Human Life

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
Gamete—reproductive cell that directs
process by which genetic information
combined and transmitted
Father gametes—sperm
Mother gametes—ovum
Zygote and Genotype


Male and female gametes fuse and
become a zygote
Zygote begins process of duplication and
division


two reproductive cells
Genotype—the genetic information from
the 46 chromosomes

set at human conception and endures
through life
Sex Determination and Sex
Ratio

Of 22 out of 23 pairs of human
chromosome, the matching chromosomes
are very closely matched

but not identical


some genes come in slight, normal variations called
alleles
The 23rd pair is different


in females, it is designated XX
in males, it is designated XY
Sex Determination and Sex Ratio, cont.



Females always contribute one X
Males will have 1/2 of the sperm
contributing an X and the other half
contributing a Y
Critical factor in determining the sex of
a zygote is which sperm reaches the
ovum first
Sex Determination and Sex Ratio, cont.

Other factors include


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rarely, male sperm may only carry either X
or Y
sometimes a woman’s uterus either unusually
alkaline or acid, giving either an X or Y
sperm an advantage
in a stressful pregnancy XY embryos are
more likely to be expelled than are XX
embryos in a spontaneous abortion, or
miscarriage
current sex ratio in United States is 52
males to 48 females
Multiple Zygotes

Monozygotic twins—identical twins (or
quadruplets) originate from one zygote



share identical instructions
possibility of cloning
1/3 of twins monozygotic
Multiple Zygotes, cont.

Dizygotic twins—from two separate
zygotes

Dizygotic births occur once in every 60
births, and occur as frequently as 1 in 6
pregnancies, but usually only 1 twin
develops past embryo stage
Multiple Zygotes, cont.

Dizygotic twins

women in late 30’s are three times more
likely to have dizygotic twins


as menopause approaches, ovulation becomes
irregular with some cycles producing no ovas and
others producing multiple ovas
share no more genes than other offspring
(about 50 percent)

50 percent of the time one twin is male
Duplication, Division, and
Differentiation


The zygote contains a complete set of
instructions to create a person
Complex instructions on duplication, cell
division, and differentiation
Duplication and Division

Zygote begins duplication and division
within hours after conception

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the 23 pairs of chromosomes duplicate, forming
two complete sets of the genetic code for that
person (zygote)
these two pair sets move toward the opposite
sides of the zygote and the single cell in the
zygote splits down the middle
the zygote’s outer membrane surrounds two cells,
each containing a complete set of the original
genetic code
these two cells then duplicate and divide to
become four, then eight, and so on
Duplication and Division, cont.


by birth, your original zygote has
duplicated and divided into 10 trillion
cells . . . by adulthood, it’s 100
trillion cells
Every cell carries an exact copy of
the complete genetic instructions
inherited by the one-celled zygote
Differentiation



Not just any cell found in the zygote can
become a person
At the 8-cell stage a third process,
differentiation, occurs
Cells begin to specialize


they take different forms
they reproduce at different rates,
depending on where in the growing mass they
are located
Differentiation, cont.


Certain genes affect differentiation by
switching other genes on and others off
so that the other genes produce the
right proteins at the right times—onoff switching mechanisms
Genotype—the genetic potential
Gene - Gene Interactions

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
Multifactoral traits—inherited traits
produced by interaction of genes and
environment
Polygenetic traits—inherited traits
produced by gene interaction
These are affected by on-off
switching mechanisms, additive genes,
and dominant-recessive genes
Additive Genes

Additive genes—one of a number of
genes affecting a specific trait

each additive gene contributes to the trait



skin color and height are determined by them
every additive gene has some impact on a person’s
phenotype
when genes interact this way, all the
involved genes contribute fairly equally
Dominant and Recessive
Genes


Nonadditive genes—phenotype shows
one gene more influential than other
genes
This is also referred to as the
dominant-recessive pattern


gene showing the most influence is
referred to as dominant
gene showing the least influence is
referred to as recessive
Dominant and Recessive Genes, cont.

X-linked genes—located on X chromosome


if recessive gene is X-linked, that it is on the
X chromosome is critical
males have only one X chromosome; females
have 2 X chromosomes


Whatever recessive genes a male inherits on his X
chromosome cannot be counterbalanced or
dominated by alleles on a second X, so any recessive
genes on X will be expressed
Explains why males have more X-linked
disorders (ex. color blindness, many allergies,
several diseases, some learning disabilities)
More Complications

Genes direct the creation of 20 amino
acids that produce thousands of
proteins forming the body’s structure
and directing biochemical functions

proteins of each body cell are continually
affected by other proteins, nutrients, and
toxins that influence the cell functioning
More Complications, cont.

genetic imprinting—tendency of certain
genes to be expressed differently when
inherited from mother than from father
(tagging)

some of the genes which influence height,
insulin production, and several forms of
mental retardation affect a child
differently depending on which parent they
came from
Genetic Diversity

Every person is unique
Mechanisms of Genetic
Diversity

Since each gamete contains only 23
chromosomes, why is every conception
genetically unique?

8 million chromosomally different ova x 8
million of the same = 64 trillion different
possibilities of children from each couple
Health Benefits of Genetic
Diversity

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
Genetic diversity safeguards human
health
Minute differences can affect the
ability to stave off certain diseases
Genetic diversity maintains the species
From Genotype to Phenotype


Every psychological characteristic is
genetically influenced
Every psychological characteristic
and personal trait is affected by the
environment
From Genotype to Phenotype, cont.


Genotype—genetic potential
Phenotype—the actual appearance
of an indivudal--combination of
genetic potential and expression

we are all carriers of the unexpressed
genes

we can pass them along through the sperm
or ova
Behavior Genetics

Behavior genetics—study of effects of
genes on behavior

personality patterns, psychological
disorders, and intellectual abilities
Senility Caused by
Alzheimer’s Disease

Most common and feared type of
senility is Alzheimer’s disease


amyloid B protein accumulates in the brain,
leading to dysfunction and destruction of
brain cells and disruption of the mind
Can be genetic—but only when
“early-onset”
Senility Caused by Alzheimer’s Disease,
cont.

If “late-onset,” may be a combination of
genes and environment

other predictors may include hypertension,
diabetes, high cholesterol, diet, exercise,
not smoking, weight control, mental
alertness, and physical health
Alcoholism

Inherited biochemistry makes some
people highly susceptible to alcohol
addiction


addictive pull can be overpowering, or weak,
or something in the middle
may explain ethnic variations
Alcoholism, cont.


Not simply a biochemical reaction—it is
psychological and physical, and
biological; thus alcoholism is polygenetic,
with alcoholics inheriting a combination
of biochemistry-affecting and
temperament-affecting genes
Culture counts too(whether alcohol is
present in environment)
Chromosomal and Genetic
Abnormalities

We now give attention to these because
we can recognize



disruptions of normal development
origins of genetic and chromosomal
abnormalities
misinformation and prejudice add to
problems of people with these abnormalities
Chromosomal Abnormalities

A gamete with more than or less than
23 chromosomes creates a zygote with
chromosomal abnormalities


most likely variable that creates
chromosomal abnormalities is mother’s age
(over 35)
father’s age (over 40) also a variable
Chromosomal Abnormalities, cont.

Most zygotes with chromosomal
abnormalities never come to term

spontaneous abortion occurs in about onehalf of all fetus with chromosomal
abnormalities
Down Syndrome


Three chromosomes at gene #21
(trisomy-21)
Syndrome—a cluster of distinct
characteristics that occur together in
a given disorder
Abnormalities of the 23rd
Pair


Location of sex chromosome
Kleinfelters syndrome—XXY


Fragile X syndrome



seemingly normal child has delayed puberty
hanging on by a thread (mutated gene)
intensifies from generation to generation
Page 78
Genetic Testing and Genetic
Counseling




Individuals with a parent, sibling, or child
with a serious genetic condition known to
be dominant or recessive
Couples with history of early spontaneous
abortions, stillbirths, or infertility
Couples from the same ethnic group or
subgroup—especially if closely related
Women over 35 and men over 40
The Process of Genetic
Counseling

Counselor constructs couples’ family
history


charts patterns of health and illness over
generations
Some tests provide information before
conception
The Process of Genetic Counseling,
cont.

Other tests are prenatal- page 83


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alpha-fetoprotein assay
ultrasound (AKA sonogram)
amniocentesis
chorionic villi sampling
pre-implantation testing (used in in vitro
fertilization)
gamete selection; ova/and or sperm are
screened to select ones free of particular
problems
A Basis for Decision



Many want to know ahead of time
Some do not
There is a more knowledge of what is to
come—or not
Alternatives

If both partners are carriers of a
serious condition or are at high risk
because of age or family
characteristics, they may turn to





in-vitro fertilization (IVF)
gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT)
zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIF)
artificial insemination donor (AID)
postponement of pregnancy until promising
treatments are further developed
Chapter Four
Prenatal Development and Birth
From Zygote to Newborn

Germinal period—first 14 days

Embryonic period—3rd through 8th weeks

Fetal period—9th week through birth
Process of Conception
Germinal: The First 14 Days
•
•
Zygote divides and keep dividing (at least
though 3rd doubling they are the same)
At this stage (8 cells) differentiation begins
-
early “stem” cells take on distinct characteristics
they gravitate to locations, foreshadowing the
type of cells they will become
Germinal: The First 14 Days, cont.
•
At about a week after conception the
multiplying cells separate into two masses
-
-
•
outer layer forms a shell (later the placenta) and the
inner cells from a nucleus (later the embryo)
first task of out cells to achieve implantation— embed
themselves into the nuturant environment of the
uterus
60% of all natural conceptions fail to implant;
70% of in vitro procedures fail to implant
Embryo: From the Third to
the Eighth Week

First sign of human structure: thin line
down the middle (22 days) that becomes
the neural tube, which eventually forms the
central nervous system, including brain and
spinal column

fourth week


head begins to take shape
heart begins with a miniscule blood vessel that
begins to pulsate
Embryo: From the Third to the Eighth
Week, cont.



fifth week

arm and leg buds appear

tail-like appendage extends from the spine
eighth week

embryo weighs 1 gram and is 1 inch long

head more rounded; face formed

all basic organs and body parts (but for sex) present
20% of all embryos spontaneously abort now
Fetus: From the Ninth Week
Until Birth

Called a fetus from 9th week on
Third Month
•
Sex organs take shape (Y cell sends
signal to male sex organs; for females,
no signal occurs)
-
genital organs fully shaped by 12th week
•
All body parts present
•
Fetus can move every part of body
•
Fetus weighs 3 ounces and is 3 inches
long
Middle Three Months:
Preparing to Survive
•
•
•
Heartbeat stronger
Digestive and excretory systems
develop more fully
Impressive brain growth (6X in size
and responsive)
-
new neurons develop (neurogenesis)
synapses—connections between neurons
(synaptogenesis)
Middle Three Months: Preparing to Survive,
cont.
•
Age of viability—age at which preterm
baby can possibly survive (22 weeks)
-
-
26 weeks survival rate about 50%
.
.
brain maturation critical to viability
weight critical to viability
28 weeks survival rate about 95%
Fetal Brain Maturation
Final Three Months— Viability
to Full Term
•
Maturation of the respiratory and
cardiovascular systems
-
•
critical difference
Gains weight—4.5 lbs. in last 10 weeks
Risk Reduction

Despite complexity, most babies are born
healthy

Most hazards are avoidable

Teratology—study of birth defects

Teratogens (ter-at-o-gens)—broad range of
substances that can cause environmental
insults that may cause prenatal
abnormalities or later learning abilities
Determining Risk

Risk analysis—weighing of factors that
affect likelihood of teratogen causing harm
Timing of Exposure
•
Critical period—in prenatal development,
the time when a particular organ or
other body part is most susceptible to
teratogenic damage
-
entire embryonic period is critical
Amount of Exposure


Dose and/or frequency
Threshold effect—teratogen relatively
harmless until exposure reaches a certain
level
Amount of Exposure, cont.
•
Interaction effect—risk of harm
increases if exposure to teratogen
occurs at the same time as exposure
to another teratogen or risk
Genetic Vulnerability
•
•
Genetic susceptibilities: product of
genes combined with stress
Folic-acid deficiency may cause
neural- tube defects
-
•
occurs most commonly in certain ethnic
groups and less often in others
Males are more genetically vulnerable
Specific Teratogens



No way to predict risk on an individual
basis
Research has shown possible effects of
most common and damaging teratogens
AIDS and alcohol extremely damaging

pregnant women with AIDS transmit it to
their newborns; high doses of alcohol cause
FAS; alcohol + drug use increase risk to
developing organism
Low Birthweight

Low Birthweight (LBW)

less than 5 1/2 lbs.




grows too slowly or weighs less than normal
more common than 10 years ago
second most common cause of neonatal death
Preterm

birth occurs 3 or more weeks before
standard 38 weeks
Low Birthweight, cont.

Small for Gestational Age (SGA)


maternal illness
maternal behavior


cigarette smoking (25% of SGA births)
maternal malnutrition


poorly nourished before and during pregnancy
underweight, undereating, and smoking tend to
occur together
Low Birthweight, cont.

Factors that affect normal prenatal
growth

quality of medical care, education, social
support, and cultural practices
The Birth Process


Hormones in mother’s brain signals process
Contractions begin: strong and regular at
10 minutes apart

average labor for first births is 8 hours
The Newborn’s First Minutes

Assessment—Apgar scale

five factors, 2 points each

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
heart rate
breathing
color
muscle tone
reflexes
score of 7 or better: normal
score under 7: needs help breathing
score under 4: needs urgent critical care
Variations

Parents Reaction


preparation for birth, physical and emotional
support, position and size of fetus, and
practices of mother’s culture
Medical Attention


birth in every developed nation has medical
attention
22% of births in U.S. are cesarean section


removal of fetus via incisions in mother’s abdomen
and uterus
is medical intervention always necessary?
Birth Complications


Cerebral Palsy—brain damage causing
difficulties in muscle control, possibly
affecting speech or other body movements
Anoxia—lack of oxygen that, if prolonged,
can cause brain damage or death
First Intensive Care . . .
Then Home

At the Hospital


many hospitals provide regular massage and
soothing stimulation; ideally, parents share
in caregiving
At Home


complications, e.g., minor medical crises
cognitive difficulties may emerge, but highrisk infants can develop normally
Mothers, Fathers and a
Good Start


Strong family support (familia)
Fathers play a crucial role



may help wives abstain from drugs or
alcohol
can reduce maternal stress
Parental alliance—commitment by both
parents to cooperate in raising child

helps alleviate postpartum depression
Mothers, Fathers and a Good
Start, cont.

Parent-infant bond—strong, loving
connection that forms as parents hold,
examine, and feed their newborn

immediate contact not needed for this to
occur