Download Review! Part 3 Cell cycle Order of events in cell growth and division

Review!
 Part 3
 Cell cycle
o Order of events in cell growth and division into 2 daughter cells
o Role of cell division
 In reproduction
 Growth
 Unicellular and Multicellualar organism
o Terms
 Genome
 Chromosomes
 Somatic cells
 Gametes
 Chromatin
o before division all DNA must be coped and separated to daughter
cells
o Cell cycle stages
 Interphase
 G1:
o First gap ang growth
 G0:
o Frezze growth
 S phase
o Chromosome duplication, synthesis
o G2: second gap, DNA repair more growth
 Mitotic phase
 Mitosis
o Prophase
 Chromatin condenses into discrete
chromosome
 Nucleoli disappear
 Mitotic spindle begins to form
 Centrosomes move apart
o Prometphase
 Fragmentation of nuclear envelope
 Formation of kinetochore
 Invasion of microtubles into the
nucleus and attachment to
kinetochores
o Metaphase
 Centrosomes are at the opposite poles
of the cell
 Chromosmes move to the metaphase
plate
Formation of imaginary metaphase
plate: alignment of all chromosomes
at the centre
 Spindle formation
o Anaphase
 Centromers separate and sister
chromatids move toward opposite
poles of the cell as their kinetochore
microtubles shorten
 Nonkinetochore microtubeles
elongate moving the poles further
apart
o Telophase
 Forming of nuclear envelope
 Chromatin is less condensed
 Mitosis is complete
 Cytokinesis
 Dividing the cell
o Difference in animal and plant cells
 Animal: cleavage is form
 Contracting ring of microfilaments
 Plants: creation of a new plant cell
o Bacteria
 Asexual reproduction
 Binary Fission
 Duplication of chromosome creates to origains of
replications which separate and end up in both new
cells
 See fig.12.11 in text
The Cell cycle control
 Cell division is different between cells
 Rate of division
o Chemical process/ signals
 Cell-cycle control system
o A cyclically set of molecules in the cell that triggers and
coordinates key events in the cell cycle
o Chemical
o Activtors
 S phase has an activator for G1 phase but not for G2
 G2 does not stop replication
o Checkpoints
 A controlled point on the cell cycle where stop and go ahead
signals can regulate the cycle
 Checkpoints in G1 phase and G2
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If the Cell does not get the go-head signal then the
cell will go in G0 phase -> becomes dormant
Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases
o Regulatory molecules of the cycle transition are proteins of two
mian types
 Protein kinases
 Regulate the activity of the others by
phosphorylating them
 GO signal
 Cyclins
 Cyclically fluctuating concentration in the cell
 Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)
 High in S and G2 phases
 MPF: maturation promotion factor
 M phase promoting factor
 Drops when the cell is dividing
 Promotes mitosis
Internal Regulation
o Anaphase promoting complex (APC)
 Anaphase will not start until APC is present
 This happens when all chromosomes are properly
attached to the spindle at the metaphase plate
External Regulation
o Growth factors
 Is a protein released by certain cells that stimulates other
cells to divide
o Density-dependent inhibition
 Crowded cells stop dividing
o Anchorage dependence
 In order to divide cells must be attached to a substratum
(extracellular matrix of a tissue)
Cancer
o Does not respond to the body’s normal control
o Divide excessively and invade other tissues
o Do not have density-dependent inhibition
Meiosis
 Terms
o Heredity
o Variation
o Genetics
o DNA
o Genes
o Chromosomes
o Locus
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 Specific location on a chromosome that contains a gene
o Gametes
o Haploid
 Number of chromosomes are reduced by half = n
o diploid
 full amount when two gametes are fused together = 2n
Sexual vs. asexual reproduction
o Asexual
 One parent/ one set of DNA
 Offspring are genetically identical
 Results in a clone
o Sexual
 2 parent offspring
 each parent will pass half of their DNA = n
 creates genetic variation in a species
 Happens in eukaryotes
Somatic cells: most cell in the body, divide by mitosis
o 46 chromosomes =2n
Gametes: germ line cells produced by meiosis
o 23 chromosomes= n
Karyotype
o Arranging the chromosomes in to pairs
o Sections
 Light= less dense, more genes expressed
 Dark= more dense, no genes are expressed
Meiosis
o Meiosis 1: separates homologous chromosomes (same shape size
and similar types of genes carried but they are not identical)
 Prophase 1:
 pairing of homologous chromosomes pairs
o process of linking in called synapsis
o creates a tetrad
 Crossing over happens
o Exchange of corresponding DNA
 Metaphase 1:
 Pairs of homologues chromosomes line up on the
metaphase plate,
 Both chromatids of one homolog are attached to
kinetochore microtubles from one pole
 Anaphase 1:
 Breakdown of proteins responsible for sister
chromatid cohesion
 Tetrads separate (homologous pairs separate) and
are drawn to opposite poles by spindle fibers
 Centromers remain intact
Telophase 1 and cytokinesis:
 Cell seperates
 contains sister chromidts
 cleavage furrow
o Meiosis 2: separates sister chromatids
 Prophase 2:
 Spindle apparatus forms
 Nuclear envelope dissolves
 Metaphase 2
 Chromsomes alin on the metaphase plate
 Kinetochoreds of sister chromatids are attached to
microtubules extending from opposite poles
 Anaphase 2:
 Breakdown of protiens holding the sister chromditds
together at the centromere allows the chrmatids to
separate
 Telophase 2 and cyctokinesis
 Nucli form, the chromosomes begin decondesing and
cytokinesis occurs
o Products
 4 haploid cells
 Each of them are genetically different due to cross over
Comparison btwn mitosis and meiosis
o Mitosis
 Maintains plodiy
 More common
 Seperates sister chromadits
o Meiosis
 Has a reduction phase/ two division stage
 Reduced ploidy level
 Happens only in gametes
 Spereates holomgus pairs and sister chromidts
Gametogenesis
o Creating gametes
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o Medellin Genetics
 Character
 Heritable feature that varies -> colour of flower
 Trait
 Each varient for a charter
 A genetic cross
 Can study the patterns of inheritance
o Pea plants and varying flower colour
 3 genreation of pea
 P generation
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F1
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F2
o Hybrids
o 3:1 ratio occurs
Alleles
 Vartions of the same gene
o Purple and white flowers
 On the same location of the chromosome
 Homologous pair of chromosomes represents an F1
hybrid
His work showed
o Each parent give one factor of each trait that is shown in
the off spring
o 2 members of each pair of factors segregate from each
other during gamete formation
o Dominant allele: fully expressed allele, determines the
organism appearance
o Recessive
allele: no
noticeable
effect on
organism’s
appearance
o Males and
females
contribute
equally to the
traits in their
offspring
Law of Segregation
 2 alleles for a
heritable
character
segregate
(separate) during
gamete formation and end up in different gametes
 Model for monohybrid inheritance
 3:1 ratio in the F2 generation
 Dominant: appear in the F1 generation in crosses
o all one colour
 Recessive: “skipped” in a F1 generation, only shown when
dominat trait is not present
 Complete Dominance: the phenotype expression of alleles was
either dominant or recessive -> not in btwn
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o Ture breading parents
Incomplete dominance: neither allele is dominate over another
 Ie: red and white P generation flower, in F1 the off
spring will be pink
 The ratio is 1:2:1
 Codominate Alleles : 2 alleles both affect the phonotype in
separate distinguishable ways
 ABO blood in humans
o These blood types produce antibodies for both A
and B types of blood
 Epitasis
 When one gene interferes with the expression of
another
o In Rats: there are 2 genes
 One codes for the expression of the colour
of the coat
 Two codes if this colour will be expressed
or not
 When the second is both receccive
(cc) then the rat will show no
colour since it interferes with the
first gene
 Follows the ratio 9:3:3:1
 Homozygous: a pair of identical alleles
 Heterozygous: two different alleles, dominant alleles is shown
 Phenotype: observable trait/ trait expressed
 Genotype: genetic make up
 Chromosmoal basis of segragation
 Arrangements of the chromosomes at metaphase 1 and
separation at anaphase 1 account for the segregation
and independent assortment of the alleles for seed color
and shape
o Segregation of alleles and fertilization
 Both and egg and sperm have 50% chance to receive either the
dominate or recivesive alleles
 ½*½=¼
o Sex linked traits
 Accure on the X chromosome and will be phenotypic in males
due to them only having one X chromosome.
 In woman they have XX causing the recessive trait to be “block”
by the dominance on the other X
 XY- hetrogametic
 XX- homogametic
 Hemizygous -> sex linked genes
 Characters
 Common in males
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Sons can only receive from their mothers, daughters can
receive from both mom and dad
o Polygenic inheritance
 Is a pattern responsible for mant features that seem simple on
the surface
 Traits are usally quantifed by measurement rather than
counting
 2 ore more gene pairs contribute to the phonotype
 Phenotypic expression of polygenic traits varies over a
wide range
o Pleiotrophy
 A single gene on more than one characteristic
 Frizzle-trait in chickens
o Both good and bad results
o The control of gene expression can occur at any stage
 The nuclear envelope separated transcription from translation
 RNA processing is absent in bateria
DNA replication: creating new strands of DNA
o Consists of a ribose, phosphate and nucleotide
 A=T, C=G U replaces T in mRNA
o 3 models of replication
 Conservative model: ceates 3 whole new copies and 1 whole
old copy
 Semiconsoervative: 2 old strands, 6 new -> second replication
 Dispersive: old and new parts of the DNA are mixed together
o Origins of replication
 Orgin: where replication is started
 Replication fork: where the origin the strands split
 Replicon: the unit of DNA in which an individual act of
replication occurs
 Split by Helicase
o The strands are anitparallel
 Leading strand 5’ – 3’ -> continuous synthesis = sense strand
 Synthesized as a single polymer 5’ -> 3’ direction
towards the replication fork = anti sense strand
 Free nitrogestius base from the cell are used
 Lagging strand 3’ – 5’ -> discontinuous synthesis
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Synthesized against the overall direction of replication
Polmerase synthesis a short RNA primer
Okazaki fragments: series of fragments on the lagging
strand
DNA ligase: gules the lagging strand together
o Primer
 Short RNS segement that is a compentry to the DNA
 Necessary to start replication
 Leaves a gap at the end of the DNA strand; this causes the
strand to be shorter than the parental DNA, these nitrogous
bases get broken off, Non coding RNA
o Telomeres
 Do not contain genes
 6 nulecoditde sequence
 protects genes
 shortens over a pereons life spand
 Non coding
Transcription: the synthesis of RNA using DNA as a template
o Prokaryotic cells
 mRNA is produced by transcrption is imedilately translated
without additional processing
o Eukaryotic cells
 2 stages Transcription and
translation
 Transcription happens in the
nuclear envelope
o Create mRNA
 Translation happens in
cytoplasm on ribosome t
create proteins
o Codons
 Start codon
 AUG
 Stop
 UAA
 UAG
 UGA
o Steps of transcription
 Initiation
 RNA polymerase binds to the
promoter -> TATA box
 Working in 5’-3’ direction = uses the lagging strand to
create the mRNA
 Transcription factors bind to the DNA before RNA
polymerase does so
 Elongation
 Polymerase moves downstream unwinding the DNA
and elongating the RNA transcript
 Once the strand has created the RNA then the double
helix will reform
 Termination
 The RNA transcript is released and the polymerase
detaches from the DNA
 Proceeds until RNA polymerase transcribes a DNA
sequence called a terminator
o AAUAAA
 RNA polymerase performs 2 functions
 Untwist and opens a short part of the DNA exposing
about 10 nucleotide bases
 Links incoming RNA nulecolditeds to the 3’ end of the
elongating strand: thus RNA grows one nuleotide at a
time in the 5’ to the 3’ direction
 As the strand builds
 Peels away from the DNA template
 The non template strand of DNA reforms the DNA
 Alterations of pre-mRNA ends
 5’ cap modified guanine necleotide, that is addded to the
5’ end of mRNA shorthly after transcprtion begins
 Poly-A tail
o Sequence of about 0-200 adenine nelocotides
added to the 3’ end of the mRNA before it exits
the nucleus
 Functions
o Facilate the export of mature mRNA from the
nucleus
o Protect mRNA from degradation by hyrolytic
enzymes
o help ribsome attach to the 5’ end of the mRNA
once the mRNA reaches the cytoplasm
 Split genes and RNA splicing
o Introns
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Noncoding sequences in DNA that are
between coding squences
o Exons
 Coding sequences of the gene that are
transcribed and expressed
o Small nuclear ribonuleoproteins (snRNPs)
 Complexes of proteins and small nuclear
RNA that are found only in th nucleus
 Help in some of RNA splicing
 Composed of
 Small nuclear RNA
 Protein
o RNA splicing
 The removals of introns and the joining of
exons
 Enzymes excise introns and splice exons
to form mRNA with continoius coding
squence
 Happens during post-transcriptional
processing of tRNA and rRNA
o Functional and evolutionary importance of
introns
 Direct the synthesis of differencr proteins
and may can gene activity
 Splicing process may help in regulating
the export of mRNA into the cytoplasm
 May allow single gene to direct the
synthesis of different proteins
 Eveolution protein diversity
 Increse the probability that
recombination of exons will occur
between alleles
Translation: synthesis of a polypeptide which occurs under the direction of
the mRNA
o Tranfers RNA -> tRNA
 The message is a series of codons along an mRNA molecule and
the interpreter
 Each tRNA has a specific anitcodon at one end a
corresponding a.a at the other end
 Consist of anitcodons
 A nucleotide triplet in TRNA that base pairs with a
complementary codon in mRNA
 Wobble
 The ability of one TRNa to recognize 2 or 3 different
mRNA codons
o Ex. The anitcodon UCU can code for either the
mRNA codon AGA or AGG
 Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases
 The process of correctly paring a tRNA with its
appropriate a.a
 Ribosome
 Consists of two subunits
 Has one mRNA binding site and 3 tRNA sites
o A site: first site where the tRNA comes into the
ribosome
o P site: holds the tRNA attached to the growing
polypeptide
o E site: tRNA leaves the ribosome
o Steps
 Intionation
 Require energy provided by GTP
 Sm. Subunit binds to a molecule of mRNa
 The initiator tRNA with the anitcondone UAC (AUG start
codon)
o This tRNA carries the a.a methionine (Met)
 Completing initiation is when the large ribosomal
subunit
 Elongation
 Require energy provided by GTP ->increases the
accuracy and efficiency
 Moves the mRNA in a 5’ – 3’ direction
 Step 1: codon recognition
o The anitcodon of an incoming aminoacyl tRNA
base- pair with the complentray mRNA codon in
the A site
o GTP is used btwen step 1 and 2
 Step 2: Peptide bond Formation
o An rRNA molecule of the large ribsomsal subuint
catalyzes the formation of peptide bond btwn the
new a.a in the a site and carboxyl end of the
growing peptide chain
o GTP is used btwn the end of step 2 and begging
of step 3
 Step 3: translocation
o The ribosome translocates the tRNA in the a site
to the P site is moved to the E site where it is
released
o The mRNA moves along the with its bound tRNA
bringing in the next codon to be translated into
the a site
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 Termination
 When the ribosome reaches the termination codon
(UAG UAA UGA) on a strand of mRNA the a site of the
ribosome accepts a protein called a release factor
instead of a tRNA
 Uses GTP
o Functional Protein
 Post-translatlation modifaction
 Affects functions by affecting protein structure
 Chemical modification
o Sugars, lipids, phosphate groups or other
additives may be attached to some a.a
 Signal peptide
 Attached to the outside of the endoplasmatic reticulum
bound ribsomes generally make proteins that are
destines for:
o Membrane inclusion in membrane component of
the endimebrane system
o Partitioning into the luminal compent of
endomenbrane system
o Secretion from the cell -> hormones
 Singal mechanism for targeting proteins to the ER
 Polypeptide sysnthesis begins on a free ribsome in
cytosol
 A singal-recongnition particle SRP binds to the singal
peptide
o Mutations
 Types
 Substitutions
o Minssence mutations
 No affect on protein – silent
 Changes one a.a to another
o Base pair substation
 Replacement od one nueleotide and its
partner with another pair nucleodtieds
o Nonsence mutation
 Changing a codon for an a.a into a stop
codon
 Inertions and Deletions
o Adding or losing of nuleotides
o Base pair insertion
o Base pair deletion
o Frame shift mutations
Virus
o Reproduce only within a host cell
 Obligate intracellular parasites
 Reproduce only within a host cell
 No metabolism and no ribosomes -> cant make their
own proteins
 Host range
 The host range of a virus is defined by
o The tissue type the virus can infect
o The species it can infect and multiply in
 Susceptibilty
 The cell’s or animals capacity to become infected
o Factors
 Permissivity
 Infection of permissice cells results in production of
infection
 Virus is released
 Nonpermissive
 Results abortive infection where susceptible cells may
aloe expression of only viral genes
o Causes no infectious virions are produced
 Transiently permissive cells
 Results in restrictive infection
 Few viral progent are produced
 Viral genone perisist in cell
 Infected cells may still be transformed and suffer the affects of
the viral genes
o Reproductive cycle
 Viral envelop which helps the parasite enter the cell
 Glycoproteind recognize and bind to specific receptors
molecules on the surface of the host cell
 The viral envelope fusses with the cell’s plasma membrane and
capsid and viral genome enter the cell
o Lysogenic and lytic reproductive cycles
 Lytic: destroys cell and creates new bacteria
 Lysogenic: DNA of the virus and the cell become one
o
o
Virulent virus: virus that reproduces only by a lytic cycle
Temperate viruses: viruses that are ab;e to use both modes of
reproduction
o Virus classification
 I) dsDNA viruses
II) ssDNA viruses
III) dsRNA viruses
IV) (+) ssRNA viruses
V) (-) ssRNA viruses (Influenza)
VI) RNA Reverse Transcribing Viruses (AIDS, leukemia)
VII) DNA Reverse Transcribing Viruses
o Email sent about types of RNA
1) mRNA - coding RNA since it codes for proteins
2) tRNA is a non-codinng RNA (ncRNA) interprets messages from RNA to
make a protein
3) rRNA is a ncRNA found in the ribosome, stabilize translation
4) snRNA/snoRNA are ncRNA used to splice introns from exons
5) miRNA -ncRNA that regulates translation by cleaving the mRNA
transcript
6) siRNA -ncRNA that has triple function: mRNA cleavage -similar to
miRNA; translation inhibition via binding to the 3 prime UTR; DNA
methylation and prevention of transcription from occurrence.
7) piRNA -ncRNAs that are inhibiting transcription from transposons in
germ cells (sperm).
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Signal Transduction
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Part 1
o Feed back loops
 Negative feedback
 Slows down/ stops the process
 Chemical
 Ex. Function of hunger
 Positive feedback
 Speeds up the process
 Function of platelets in the formation of clot
o Levels of biological organizatin
 Biosphere
 Biomes
 Ecosystems
 Comminty
 Population
 Organuism
 Organs. Organ systems
 Tissues
 Cells
 Organelles
 Molecules
 Neoulotide
 DNA
 Genes
o Three domains
 Domain bacteria
 Prokaryotes
 Domain Archaea
 Prokatyotes
 Domain Eukarya
 Eukaryotes
o Five kingdoms
 Prokaryota
 Under the bateria and archaea domain
 Protista
 Under the Eukarya
 Fungi
 Under the Eukarya
 Plantae
 Under the Eukarya
 Animalia
 Under the Eukarya
o Taxonmony
 Kingdom
 Phylum
o
o
o
o
 Class
 Order
 Family
 Genus
 Species
Charles Darwin
 Theory of natural selection
 Individual variation
 Struggle for existence
Eukaryotes vs. prokaytroes
 Eukaryotes
 Membrane bonded organalles
 Subdived by internal membranes
 Larger size -> 10x
 Prokaryotics
 DNA is not separated from the rest of the cell by
enclosed membrane bound nucleus
 Have a cell wall composed of petidoglcan-> single
layer of a.a and sugar
 Major differences
 The prsence of a nuelecus
 Internal membranes – eukaryotes
 Sepertition of genetic material
Plant cell structure
 Cell wall and plasma membrane surrounds the cell
 Contains
 Nucleus
 Ribsomes
 ER
 Golgi apparatus
 Peroxisomes
 Mircoflimaents
 Microtubles
 Chloroplast
 Helps in photosynthesis
o Sunglight -> sugar and other organic
materials
 Central vacuole
 Stroes chemicals
 Breaks down macromolecule
 Helps in plant growth
Animal Cells
 Contains
 Nucleus
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Nuclear
Ribsomes
ER
Golgi apparatus
Lysosme
Mitochondria
Vacuole
Centromeres
o Ribosomes
 Sites of protein suythesis
 Not mebrane-bound
 In both euk and pro.
 Bound ribosomes
 Attached to the ER
 Produce sectetory proteins
 Free ribosomes
 Mainly make proteins that will remain dissolved in
the cytosol
o The Endomembrane system: either connected directly or help in
transport material
 Nuclear envelope
 Takes the RNA that the nucleus has decode and
transports the RNA to the Rough ER through pores
 ER
 Rough: responsible for protein synthesis through
ribosome that are located on the Rough ER,
undergoes modifications oligosaccharide ->
glycoprotein, leave in a transport vesicle
 Smooth: responsible for fats and lipped synthesis,
carbohydrate metobolism, detoxifies durgs and
poisons, stores calcium ion necessary for muscle
contraction
 Golgi apparatus:
 Housing and manufacturing of the products from the
rough ER has created
o Two phases
 Cis Face (top) -> recives product
 Trans Face (bottem) -> pinches off
vesicle from golgi and transports to
other parts
 Lysosomes
 Detoxification, intercellular digestion, cell
destruction and garbage disposal

Have sequesters potentially destructive hydrolytic
enzymes from the cytosol
 Maintains the optimal acidic environment
 Vacuoles
 Storage of food and water for the cell
 Transport vehicle
 Central vacuole (tonoplast)
 Plasma membrane
 Transport items in and out of the cell
 Lets certain thing in and keeps others out
 Other parts of the cell not part of the Enodometrium system
 Mitochria
o Site of celluar resp
o Creates ATP
o Own DNA
 Chorloplast
o Site of photosythsis
 Peroxisomes
o Cytoplasm
 Cytoskeleton
 Helps maintain/change shape
 Microtubules
o Cell division serves as a temp. scaffolding for
other organelles
 Actin microfilaments
o Helps in cell division and motion
 Intermediate filaments
o In between the size of microtubules and
actin filaments
 Ultrastructures
 Basel body
o Anchored in the cell
o Nine doublets of the cilium extend into the
basal body
o STRONGEST STRUCTURE
 Motor proteins
o Kinesin moves organelles towqrds periphery
(+)
o Dinein toward the nucleus (-)
o Intercelluar junctions in aminals
 Tight junction
 Cont. belt
 Seals the cell
 Prevents leakage
 Desomsomes- anchoring junction
 Fasten cells together
Gap Junctions – commincation junction
 Commincation
 Channels between cells
o Plant cells
 3 kinds of tissue
 Dermal
 Ground
 Vascular
o Animal Cells
 Epithelial tissue
 Covers body surface and lines body cavities
 Simple of stratified
 Functions
o Loning
o Protecting
o Forming glands
 Kinds
o Squamous: flatten
o Cuboidal: cube- shaped cells
o Columnar: elongated cells
 Pseudostratifed
o single layer of cells shaped to look like 2
layers
 Connective tissue
 Loose connectove tissue(LCT)
 Adipose tissue
 Fibrous concctive tissue (FCT)
o Tendons
o Ligaments
o bone
 Cartilage
 Bone
 Blood
 3 fiber types
o callagenous
o Elastic
o Reticular
 Nervous system
 Nervous tissue
 Nuroms
 Axons
 Dendrites
 Neurons

 Glial cells
Muscle tissue
 Skeletal (striated)
 Smooth
 Cardiac
o Bacteria
 3 kinds of Structre
 Cocci- spherical prokaryotes
 Bascilli- rod shape
 Helices – helical prokaryotes
 Cell wall
 Peptidoglycan
 Gram- positive, simpler wals with large amount of
ptg
 Gram- negative, more comples wit less ptg. The
outer membrane contains lipoplysacharides,
carbohydrates bonded to lipids
 Rapid growth
 Transdormation
o Genes are taking from the surrounsinf
enviroment
 Conjugation
o Direct gene transfer from one prokaryote to
another
o F factor -> ability to form sex pili and donate
DNA during conjugation
 Transduction
o The gene transfer by viruses
 Generalized
 Random pieces of the host cell
DNA are packaged within a
phage capsid during the lytic
cycle of a phage
 specialized
 when a prophage excises from
the bacterial chromosomes and
carries with it only certain host
genes adjacent to the excision
site
 R plasmids and anitbotic reisistance
 Plasmids that carry resistance genes
o Nutritional and metabolic diversity
 Engery soruce
 Energy
 Carbon

o
o
o
o
o

 Photoautotroph
 Chemoautotroph
 Photoherotrophs
 Chemoheterotrophs
Water dissociation
 Acidic more H+ molecules
 Basic more OHOrganic molecules
 Fromed by the actions of living things
 Have a carbon backbone
Isomers
 Structual
 Gemoetric
 Enantiomers
Functional groups
 Hydroxl group: Polar, water soluble, alcohol
 Carbonyl group: Polar, water soluble, found in sugar
 Carboxyl group: Polar, water soluble, Donates protons, has
acidic properties
 Amino group: Polar, water soluble, acts as a week base,
 Nitrogen is present
 Phosphate group: diccoated, -tive charge acid pro,
 Sulfhydryl group: consists of a sulfur atom bonded to an
atom of hydrogen
Polymers
 Classes
 Carbs
 Proteins
 Lipids
o Phospholipids
o Steroids
 Nucleic acids
 Creation of a polymer
 Dehydration -> getting rid of a water molecule
Part 2
o Membrane structure and function
 2 models
 sandwich
 fluid mosaic model
 Membrane
 Consist of phosiophilid by layer
o These phosiphilies are fuild
 Lateral
 Flip-flop
 Cholestrol

Structure

o Reduces fuiltiy in membrane