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10/15/2010 Biology and Behavior Behavioral neuroscience: 2-1 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Biology and Behavior To survive, human beings must be able to perform three interrelated activities: sensing events, or stimuli; processing stimuli; and responding to stimuli. Stimulus: Receptors: 2-2 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Nervous System The activities of sensing, processing, and responding are coordinated and controlled by the nervous system, which has two major divisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). CNS: PNS: 2-3 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 1 10/15/2010 Divisions of the Nervous System Central Nervous System Brain Spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System Somatic Autonomic Sympathetic Parasympathetic Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 2-4 The Nervous System Somatic nervous system: afferent (sensory) nerves: efferent (motor) nerves: 2-5 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Nervous System Autonomic nervous system: sympathetic nervous system parasympathetic nervous system. 2-6 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 2 10/15/2010 The Nervous System The CNS The spinal cord serves as the body’s “information superhighway.” We’ll talk about thr brain in a bit… 2-7 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Nervous System Reflexes: 2-8 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Endocrine System Endocrine system hormones. Pineal gland: 2-9 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 3 10/15/2010 The Endocrine System Endocrine system: Ductless glands that regulate growth, reproduction, metabolism, mood, and some behavior Hormones: Chemical messengers secreted into the bloodstream Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 2-10 The Endocrine System Pancreas: Hypothalamus: Pituitary gland: Thyroid gland: Gonads—ovaries in women and testes in men: Adrenal glands: 2-11 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Neurons: Basic Cells of the Nervous System The cells that make up the nervous system are called neurons. Neurons are composed of: dendrites that receive signals from adjacent neurons, a cell body or soma, an axon that transmits signals, and terminal buttons that contain neurotransmitters. 2-12 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 4 10/15/2010 Structure of a Neuron 2-13 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Neurons: Basic Cells of the Nervous System One of the major differences among neurons is found in their axons. Some axons are surrounded by a myelin sheath, which is a fatty protein substance. Myelin: Nodes of Ranvier: Glial cells 2-14 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Neurons: Basic Cells of the Nervous System Because a neural signal is sent from one neuron to the next through the terminal buttons of the axons, the most common arrangement is for a neuron’s terminal buttons to be near, but not touching, the receptive dendrites of neighboring neurons. The membrane on the side that sends the message is the presynaptic membrane, while the membrane on the receiving side of the synapse is the postsynaptic membrane. 2-15 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 5 10/15/2010 Neurons: Basic Cells of the Nervous System The most common arrangement at the end of an axon consists of a terminal button to send the signal, a dendrite to receive the signal, and the gap between the two, which is the synapse. Neurotransmitters: 2-16 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Synapse 2-17 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Neurons: Basic Cells of the Nervous System When the electrical signal reaches the terminal buttons, it causes the vesicles in the terminal button to release a chemical signal in the form of a neurotransmitter into the synapse. As the neurotransmitter enters the synapse, it contacts the postsynaptic membrane (usually the dendrite) of the next neuron. 2-18 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 6 10/15/2010 Neurons: Basic Cells of the Nervous System The neuron that is receiving the neurotransmitter may become more likely to transmit the message to subsequent neurons; this process is called excitation. In other instances, the neuron that receives the neurotransmitter becomes less likely to transmit the message to subsequent neurons; this process is called inhibition. 2-19 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Neurons: Basic Cells of the Nervous System Dopamine: Serotonin: Acetylcholine: Glutamate: GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid): Norepinephrine (which is also a hormone): 2-20 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Neurons: Basic Cells of the Nervous System Synapses must be cleared, and cleared rapidly, before additional signals can be transmitted. The synapse is cleared in one of two ways, depending on the particular neurotransmitter involved. Breakdown: Reuptake: 2-21 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 7 10/15/2010 Neurons: Basic Cells of the Nervous System Most drugs exert their effects by influencing the operation of a neurotransmitter: Some drugs increase the effectiveness of neurotransmitters; other drugs reduce their effectiveness. agonists. antagonists. 2-23 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Agonists 2-24 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 8 10/15/2010 Antagonists 2-25 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Neurons: Basic Cells of the Nervous System Neuromodulators: Endorphins: 2-26 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Neurons: Basic Cells of the Nervous System The Neural Signal: Neurons are electrically charged: Resting state: resting potential: 2-27 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 9 10/15/2010 Neurons: Basic Cells of the Nervous System When a neurotransmitter enters the synapse, it may result in either: depolarization (the neuron becomes less negatively charged) or hyperpolarization (the neuron becomes more negatively charged). 2-28 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Neurons: Basic Cells of the Nervous System Action potential: 2-29 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look In the 1800s, German physician and anatomist Franz Joseph Gall developed the pseudoscience phrenology (“science of the mind”). 2-30 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 10 10/15/2010 The Brain: A Closer Look In 1861, the French physician Paul Broca used a technique for understanding the brain—the clinical or case study method. Broca’s area: 2-31 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look Phineas Gage’s story is one of the most famous cases of survival from massive brain injury. Gage, a railroad foreman, was working with explosives in Cavendish, Vermont, on September 13, 1848, trying to clear a railroad right-of-way through granite bedrock. 2-32 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look The stereotaxic instrument holds the head in a fixed position and allows an electrode (a fine piece of specially-treated wire) to be inserted into a specified area of a patient’s brain. 2-33 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 11 10/15/2010 The Brain: A Closer Look In 1929, Hans Berger developed the electroencephalograph (EEG): 2-34 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look Brain waves (identified by Greek letters) are distinguished by their frequency, which is measured in cycles per second (called hertz and abbreviated Hz), and their amplitude (the height of the wave on the EEG record), which reflects strength. Brain researchers have labeled a number of different types of brain waves; each is generally associated with a particular state of consciousness. 2-35 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look Alpha waves: 2-36 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 12 10/15/2010 The Brain: A Closer Look Beta waves: 2-37 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look Theta waves: 2-38 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look Delta waves: 2-39 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 13 10/15/2010 The Brain: A Closer Look The advent of computers has led to major advances in the study of the brain. Positron emission tomography (PET): 2-40 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look Computerized axial tomography (CT or CAT): Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): 2-41 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain The brain is divided into the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 2-42 14 10/15/2010 The Brain: A Closer Look The major components of the hindbrain are the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum. From an evolutionary perspective, these are the oldest parts of the brain, and they have important survival functions. 2-43 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look The medulla (short for medulla oblongata): 2-44 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look The pons: The cerebellum: 2-45 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 15 10/15/2010 The Brain: A Closer Look Together, the hindbrain and midbrain are known as the brain stem because they form the stem, or stalk, on which the remainder of the brain rests. The midbrain: Psychologists have found that this complex network of fibers, known as the reticular formation, is very important in controlling our level of arousal or alertness. 2-46 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look The forebrain: These two halves or hemispheres are connected by a wide band of fibers known as the corpus callosum (“hard body”). 2-47 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look The two hemispheres of the forebrain communicate with each other through the corpus callosum. The cerebral cortex (cerebrum): 2-48 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 16 10/15/2010 The Brain: A Closer Look Deep down in the brain—below the cortex—is the basal ganglia: The limbic system: 2-49 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Major Components of the Limbic System 2-50 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look The thalamus: Each cerebral hemisphere has four specific areas, called lobes—the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes. 2-51 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 17 10/15/2010 The Brain: A Closer Look The frontal lobes: The major responsibility of the parietal lobes: 2-52 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look The temporal lobes : The occipital lobes’: 2-53 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look Neuroscientists have focused on the brain structures responsible for language as well as the problems that develop when these areas are damaged. Broca’s area: Wernicke’s area: 2-54 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 18 10/15/2010 The Brain: A Closer Look The term aphasia refers to a loss of the ability to speak or understand written or spoken language. Damage to Broca’s area results in nonfluent aphasia. 2-55 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look In 1874, the German neurologist Carl Wernicke (1848–1905) identified a second brain area that plays a significant role in language. Damage to Wernicke’s area results in language problems called fluent aphasia. 2-56 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasias are the two most common, but there are other types. For example, optic aphasia: 2-57 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 19 10/15/2010 The Brain: A Closer Look Apraxias are deficits in nonverbal skills. Apraxias involve damage to the right hemisphere. Dressing apraxia: Constructional apraxia: 2-58 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look In addition to apraxias, the right hemisphere controls prosody, the ability to express emotion. People suffering from motor aprosodia: 2-59 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look In the early 1960s, two neurosurgeons, Philip Vogel and Joseph Bogen, discovered that cutting the corpus callosum reduced seizures in untreatable epileptic patients. Even though we do not know exactly why this operation controls seizures, it is still performed as a last resort in severe cases of epilepsy. 2-60 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 20 10/15/2010 The Brain: A Closer Look Research by Nobel Prize winner Roger Sperry and his colleague Michael Gazzaniga showed that in people with a severed corpus callosum, the two hemispheres appeared to be doing different things. 2-61 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The Brain: A Closer Look Studies of split brain patients support the conclusion that the left hemisphere… Although the right hemisphere… Neuroplasticity of the brain. 2-62 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 21