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3. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM AGRICULTURE 3.1 General The atmosphere, which is a layer of gases surrounding the earth, contains, in part, water vapour, carbon dioxide, and other gases. Some of these gases, defined as greenhouse gases, enable solar radiation to pass through, but also absorb the incoming radiation from the earth, which converts to heat. This process, also called the “greenhouse effect”, preserves a temperature range that is conducive to the existence of life on earth. The industrial revolution and subsequent technological development led to accelerated usage of fossil fuels such as petroleum and coal, which contribute to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions and a substantial increase in their concentration in the atmosphere. An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases intensifies the greenhouse effect, and leads to accelerated global warming and climate changes of unusual power and intensity. Worldwide recognition of the harm expected due to global warming led to a unification of forces on an international level in an effort to decrease greenhouse gas emissions and reduce the damages resulting from climate change. In 1992, at the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was signed. As part of the convention, the signatory countries were asked to calculate and report their greenhouse gas emissions. An addition to the Convention on Climate Change that was discussed in Kyoto in 1997 obligates the developed countries to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions; this was signed two years later (the Kyoto Protocol). Israel ratified the Convention on Climate Change in 1996 and the Kyoto Protocol in 2004. Israel is not officially obligated to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases because it is defined by the Convention as a developing country. This is in contrast to the developed signatory countries (Annex I), which obligated themselves to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 5% during the first obligation period of the Kyoto Protocol, which ended in 2012. Nevertheless, Israel is acting to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. - (45) - 3.2 Purpose and Implications of the Indicator 3.2.1 Purpose of the Indicator The indicator enables the presentation of the following aspects of Israel’s greenhouse gas emissions: Emissions of greenhouse gases from agriculture and their share out of total emissions, by type of gas. Trends and changes in emissions of greenhouse gases from agriculture. International comparisons. 3.2.2 Effects of Greenhouse Gas Emissions on Agriculture As a result of agricultural activity, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide are emitted. Carbon dioxide from agriculture is emitted mostly as a result of direct or indirect fuel combustion. 1. Direct fuel consumption – for agricultural machinery and heating. 2. Indirect fuel consumption (by means of electricity production) – use of electricity for heating and operation of agricultural equipment. In Israel, methane from agriculture is emitted mostly from livestock raising, from two sources. 1. Fermentation in the digestive system of herbivorous animals, mostly cattle, sheep, and goats. 2. Treatment of waste excreted by animals in dairy production, fattening of cattle, etc. Nitrous oxide from agriculture is created mostly by chemical reactions (nitrification and denitrification). The sources of the emissions include use of synthetic fertilizers, treatment and use of manure, remains of crops in the soil, and animal grazing. 3.2.3 The Investigation Period The period investigated was 1996–2011. - (46) - 3.3 Methodology The emissions data were calculated at the ICBS according to guidelines of the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). The data on carbon dioxide emissions from electricity production for agriculture were calculated according to proportions of electricity consumption in agricultural localities out of total electricity consumption from the Israel Electric Corporation. Because electricity consumption in agricultural localities is not identical to electricity consumption in agriculture, an estimate was made based on data from 2009 of the consumption for agricultural activities out of total consumption in agricultural localities. The results of the estimate showed that only a negligible amount of the agricultural localities’ electricity consumption was due to the households. Thus, the remainder of the consumption, which constituted most of it, was due to agricultural activity. 3.3.1 Method of Calculating the Indicator Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the main greenhouse gas, constituting 85% of total greenhouse gases. Other greenhouse gases are methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and the F-gases group (HFCs, PFCs, and SF6). The contribution of each gas to global warming is measured by its potential to maintain heat, its molecular weight, and the length of time it remains in the atmosphere relative to carbon dioxide. The unit of measurement of the potential warming is GWP (Global Warming Potential) in equivalents of carbon dioxide. For example: Over 100 years, one ton of methane has a GWP equivalent to 21 tons of CO 2. Nitrous oxide has a GWP value of 310. The F-gases group (HFCs, PFCs, and SF6) is associated with very high GWPs, ranging between approximately 100 and approximately 24,000. The indicator was calculated using the following components: Emission factors, according to IPCC guidelines Agricultural quantities, inputs, and outputs Consumption of fuels and electricity in agriculture Number of animals, by type 3.3.2 Reliability of the Data Emissions of CO2 from electricity production were calculated corresponding to the relative share of electricity consumption in the agricultural localities. Similar to other countries, the factors were based on estimates, adapted to Israel. - (47) - 3.4 Indicator Data Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions Greenhouse gas emissions in Israel in 2011 totalled 78,452,507 tons. Of these, 2,578,360 tons (3.3%) were from agriculture. During the past decade, the percentage of emissions from agriculture has remained almost the same. Table D: Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Israel(1) 1996–2011 Tons, as CO2 equivalent Total Tons Methane CH4 Thereof: % from agriculture Tons Nitrous oxide N2O Thereof: % from agriculture Tons Thereof: % from agriculture Carbon dioxide CO2 Tons Thereof: % from agriculture 1996 62,704,570 4.3 8,945,370 10.0 1,897,200 62.3 52,233,000 1.2 2000 72,438,719 3.6 9,225,582 10.0 2,205,645 59.0 61,220,159 0.6 2003 72,135,257 3.2 5,688,830 14.7 2,605,697 52.9 64,127,007 0.2 2004 72,696,579 3.3 6,067,679 13.9 2,735,085 52.2 64,164,065 0.2 2005 73,312,200 3.3 6,533,451 13.4 2,736,764 52.2 64,417,576 0.2 2006 74,656,034 3.4 6,781,998 13.7 2,767,475 54.1 65,502,554 0.2 2007 76,869,854 3.4 6,842,751 13.6 2,950,114 54.2 67,461,782 0.2 2008 77,954,465 3.3 6,847,424 14.1 2,797,262 53.5 66,838,358 0.2 2009 74,101,507 3.3 6,884,853 13.6 2,566,050 55.5 64,110,996 0.2 2010 76,924,593 3.2 6,808,359 14.4 2,631,365 53.5 66,507,804 0.1 2011 78,452,507 3.3 6,750,254 15.0 2,503,633 59.8 67,696,741 0.1 (1) Excluding emissions from electricity production. Between 1996 and 2011, greenhouse gas emissions in Israel increased (as CO2 equivalent) from 62.7 million tons to 78.5 million tons. Emissions of carbon dioxide, the main greenhouse gas, increased during this period from 52.2 million tons to 67.7 million tons in 2011. As a result of collection of methane, which is emitted from landfilled solid waste, methane emissions (as CO2 equivalent) decreased from 8.9 million tons in 1996 to 6.7 million tons in 2011. Nitrous oxide emissions in Israel increased from 1.9 million tons (as CO2 equivalent) in 1996 to 2.6 million tons (as CO2 equivalent) in 2010. The following year, in 2011, these emissions decreased slightly, to 2.5 million tons. Agriculture’s Share in Greenhouse Gas Emissions The share of agriculture out of all greenhouse gas emissions decreased between 1996 and 2003, from 4.3% to 3.2%, respectively. Since then and up to 2011, the share remained similar. The percentage of CO2 emissions from agriculture out of all CO2 emissions decreased from 1.2% to 0.2% during 1996–2003 and then remained stable until 2009. During 2010–2011, the percentage decreased again, to 0.1%. Between 2006 and 2010, there were - (48) - Thousand tons, as CO2 equivalent fluctuations in N2O emissions, although the share of N2O emissions from agriculture out of all N2O emissions remained stable (approximately 54%). In 2011, this percentage increased to 59.8%. The increase in the percentage of N2O emissions from agriculture resulted mostly from decreased amounts of industrial production, which on one hand led to a decrease in industry’s share of the emissions, and on the other hand led to an increase in agriculture’s share. The percentage of CH4 emissions from agriculture out of all CH4 emissions increased from 10% in 1996 to 15% in 2003. This increase resulted mostly from a decrease in emissions in the waste management sector as a result of methane collection at landfills. During 2004–2011, the percentage of methane emissions from agriculture out of all methane emissions did not change substantially, and ranged between 14% and 15%. 2,000 15: GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM AGRICULTURE, BY TYPE (including emissions from electricity consumption and fuel combustion), DURING 1996, 2006, AND 2011 1,750 1,500 1,250 1,000 750 500 250 0 Methane Nitrous oxide 1996 2006 Carbon dioxide 2011 Diagram 16 shows that the source of most of the greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture is animal production. During the years investigated, there was an upward trend in emissions from animal production due to increased animal production on the farms. Emissions from crop plants increased until 2007, then decreased until 2010, mostly due to a decrease in the fertilizer input. In 2011, there was a slight increase in emissions of greenhouse gases from crop plants. - (49) - 16: GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM AGRICULTURE, BY MAIN SOURCE (excluding emissions from electricity consumption and fuel combustion) 1996–2011(1) Thousand tons, as CO2 equivalent 1,800 1,600 1,400 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2000 1996 0 Greenhouse gas emissions from animal production Greenhouse gas emissions from crop plants (1) No data were available for the years 1997–1999 and 2001–2002. Diagram 17 shows that there are numerous and varied sources for nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. The largest sources were: fertilizers after evaporation, sinking, and leaching (330,077 tons); treatment of manure (295,039 tons); and animal manure spread on agricultural soil (254,384 tons). Tons, as CO2 equivalent 350,000 17: NITROUS OXIDE (N2O) EMISSIONS FROM AGRICULTURE, BY SOURCE 2011 300,000 250,000 200,000 150,000 100,000 50,000 0 Fertilizers – after evaporation, sinking, and leaching Manure treatment Manure Remains of Synthetic Emissions spread on crops in fertilizers – from animal agricultural fields portion grazing land sinking into soil - (50) - Nitrogenbinding crops Organic soil New Zealand is the country with the highest ratio of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture per dunam: approximately 10 tons per dunam (Diagram 18). Next, after a large gap, are Ireland with 2 tons per dunam, and the Netherlands with 1.5 tons per dunam. 12 18: GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM AGRICULTURE, IN SELECTED OECD COUNTRIES 2009 10 8 6 4 2 0.8 0 New Zealand Ireland Netherlands Switzerland Belgium South Korea Luxembourg Slovenia Israel United Japan Germany Austria Norway Iceland France Denmark Portugal Australia Czech Sweden Poland United States Finland Spain Slovakia Estonia Hungary Canada Turkey Tons, as CO2 equivalent per dunam of agricultural soil Hungary, Canada, and Turkey have the lowest ratios of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture per dunam: 0.17, 0.14, and 0.1 tons per dunam, respectively. In Israel, the ratio is 0.8 tons per dunam of agricultural soil. - (51) - 3.5 Terms, Definitions, and Explanations Greenhouse gas – A gas occurring naturally or resulting from human activity, and contributing to the greenhouse effect and global warming. Ozone – A greenhouse gas produced by photochemical reactions between hydrocarbons and nitrous oxides. Methane – A colourless, non-poisonous, and flammable hydrocarbon greenhouse gas created by anaerobic decomposition of organic compounds. Nitrous oxide – A greenhouse gas produced from fuel combustion and microbial processes in soil and on water, which are caused by the use of fertilizers that contain nitrogen. 3.6 Sources of the Data Emissions data were calculated at the Agriculture, Environment, and Energy Sector of the ICBS, following IPCC guidelines (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). International comparison data were from OECD publications: http://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/sustainable-agriculture/agri-environmentalindicators.htm Israel Electric Corporation, statistical reports: http://www.iec.co.il/investors/Pages/StatisticalReports.aspx (Hebrew only) - (52) -