Download 4. Rome, conqueror of Italy

Course: Introduction to Roman History Instructor: Michel Cottier
4. Rome, conqueror of Italy
Latin abbreviations:
Cf. (= 'confer', imperative of 'conferre', means 'compare!') Chapter 5 of your textbook.
[e.g. = 'exempli gratia' meaning 'for example/instance']
[i.e. = 'id est' meaning 'that is...']
Cf. CHAPTERS V and VI of your textbook.
Sourcebook nos.:
- 7 on p. 12 (= FIRA 1, p. 4 = Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities 2.9-10; on patrician and plebeian);
- 251-254 on pp. 203-207 (= Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 15.27.5 / 15.27.4 / Gaius, Institutes 1.3 / Cicero, Speech in
Defense of Flaccus 15.16; popular assemblies);
- 255-261 on pp. 207-215 (= Cicero, A Book about Constitution 3.3.6-9 / Varro, A Book about the Latin Language
5.14.80-82 / The Digest of Laws 1.2.16-28 (Pomponius) / Polybius, History of the World 6.12.1-9 / Cicero, An Essay
about Duties (a series of selected passages) / Apuleius, The Golden Ass 1.24 and 25 / Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights;
magistrates: functions, duties and powers);
- 79 on pp. 59-63 = several passages of Vitruvius' On Architecture (city houses);
- 187 on p. 151 = Appian, The Civil Wars 1.1.7, 9, 10, 11 (uses of conquered territories);
- 194 on p. 160 = Cicero, An Essay on Old Age 16.55-56 (farmers and heroes);
- 203-204 and 206-208 on pp. 166-172 = Seneca the Younger, An Essay about Peace of Mind 8.8 / Id., An Essay
about Anger 3.29.1-2 / several passages of Columella's On Agriculture / Cato the Elder, On Agriculture 2.56-59 /
Varro, On Agriculture 1.17.1, 3-5, 7 (slavery).
PLACE NAMES AND OTHER GEOGRAPHICAL DETAILS TO BE ABLE TO LOCALIZE ON A MAP:
- IMAGE 1: Samnites (people of the territory called Samnium; map, p. 8);
- IMAGE 2: Veii and Caere (Etruscan cities); Ostia (sea harbour of Rome); Capua (Etruscan, then Oscan city)[all on
the map on the inside cover of your textbook];
- IMAGE 3: Massilia (Greek city; map, p. 89); Epirus (Greek kingdom; map, p. 89).
DATES TO REMEMBER (only those with an *):
- *Around 500 (traditional date: 509) rule by popular royal tyrants at Rome was abolished and a conservative
'republican' (aristocratic) constitution was established.
- 494 BC (according to tradition): first 'Secession of the Plebs'; creation of the 'concilium plebis' (Council of the
Plebs) and of the 'tribuni plebis' (tribunes of the Plebs).
- 471 BC: new 'Secession of the Plebs'. The 'concilium plebis' (Council of the Plebs) obtained the right: a) to elect a
new series of magistrates, the plebeian aediles, on top of the plebeian tribunes; b) to promulgate 'plebiscita'
('plebiscites, decisions of the Plebs') which had force of law.
- *Around 450 BC appearance of the first codification of Roman laws: (Law of) the Twelve Tables
- 444 BC: creation of the censors, two magistrates in charge of the civic census and later of the allocation of public
contracts.
- IMAGE 4: *396 BC: defeat, capture and destruction of the Etruscan city of Veii (see map on the inside cover of
your textbook), Rome's chief rival for the control of the lower Tiber during the whole fifth century.
- IMAGE 4: *around 390 BC (perhaps 387/6): battle of the Allia river, the Gauls defeated the Romans and captured
and destroyed Rome (except for the Capitol).
IMAGES 5 and 6: This unfortunate episode led to the construction of Rome' first rempart, the so-called 'Servian wall'
(named after Rome's sixth king, Servius Tullius; see map, p. 3 of your textbook).
- IMAGE 7: 381 BC: the Latin town of Tusculum became the first Roman 'municipium'.
- 367 BC: creation of the praetors, annually elected magistrates in charge of justice and deputies of the consuls if need
be. Creation also of curule aediles (that is patrician aediles) in imitation of the plebeian aediles elected by the
'concilium plebis' since 471 BC.
- 343-341 BC: First Samnite War. Alliance with Capua.
- 340-338 BC: Latin War. Dissolution of the Latin League (which the Romans had joined in 493 to fight against hill
tribes).
- 327-304/3 BC: Second Samnite War. IMAGE 7: *321 BC: Battle of the Caudine Forks (in the mountains between
Campania and Apulia; cf. map on the inside cover of your textbook) = important Samnite victory.
- 298-290 BC: Third Samnite War. Both Samnites and Sabines were subdued.
- IMAGE 7: 282 BC: start of the conflict with Tarentum which will lead to:
a. *280-278 and *276-275: the Pyrrhic Wars against Pyrrhus, king of Epirus.
b. *272: Tarentum fell to Rome, paid heavy war compensation and became a Roman ally.
- 269 BC: start of the minting of silver coinage in Rome (temple of Juno Moneta).
THE ROMAN REPUBLICAN INSTITUTIONS FROM 509 TO 269 BC (points to keep in mind):
[Roman social orders:
- 'ordo senatorius' ('the senatorial order') and 'ordo equester' ('the equestrian order'). Remember that these two orders
had much in common and that the boundaries between them was quite permeable.]
- Around 500 (traditional date: 509), rule by popular royal tyrants at Rome was abolished and a conservative
'republican' (= aristocratic) constitution was established.
- Creation of a political system that would make difficult for a single individual to acquire too much power at the
expense of the rest:
a. Two annual consuls (originally military commanders of the two first legions of the Roman army) who commanded
the army, acted as judges and summoned meetings of the 'comitia centuriata' (Centuriate Assembly).
[NB: Each of the two consuls had 12 lictors carrying 'fasces' (bundles of rods and single-headed axe held together by
red thongs; symbolizing the power of punishment). By consent the axe was removed from the 'fasces' of the
magistrates within Rome (with the exception of the dictator and the triumphing general), thus symbolizing the citizen
right of appeal. Dictator: 24 lictors; praetors: 6 lictors each.]
b. The Senate = an advisory council of prominent and experienced men (the 'patres') which has control over foreign
affairs, expenditures made by the state treasury ('aerarium') and the supervision of public contracts. They passed
decrees (and not laws) called 'senatus consulta' (sg. 'senatus consultum'); these decrees could be accepted as such,
modified or reject by magistrates.
c. The 'comitia centuriata' (Centuriate Assembly) elected the chief magistrates and functioned as a court of appeal for
Roman citizens.
d. In exceptional cases, i.e., in time of political or military crisis, a dictator for a period not exceeding six months
could be appointed. The dictator nominated his direct subordinate the 'magister equitum' (master of the cavalry).
[The 'plebs' = the non-patrician group of the society, those who, at first, had no share in power in the young Roman
Republic. According to tradition, the first 'Secession of the Plebs' took place in 494 BC and led to the creation of both
e) and f):]
e.the 'concilium plebis' (Council of the Plebs), and of the 'tribuni plebis' (tribunes of the Plebs); originally two, later
(by 449 BC) up to ten, non-patrician officials whose primary function was to protect any plebeian (= member of the
Plebs) who called upon them for help against abuses committed by magistrates. They were elected for one year by the
new 'concilium plebis' (Council of the Plebs).
In 471, after a new Secession of the Plebs the 'concilium plebis' started to elect plebeian tribunes and aediles
(magistrates in charge of market and food supply, of plebeian archives and treasury, and of security in the city). The
Council of the Plebs was also able by the mid-fifth century BC to pass 'plebiscita' (sg. 'plebiscitum') = plebiscites, i.e.,
decisions of the Plebs which had force of law.
[Around 450 BC appearance of the first codification of Roman laws = (Law of the) Twelve Tables.]
f. A few years later creation of the 'Comitia Tributa' (Tribal Assembly) which included both patrician and
non-patrician elements of the society and elected at first two, then four, annual 'quaestors', officials in charge of
financial matters.
g. 444 BC: creation of the censors, two magistrates in charge of the civic census and later of the allocation of public
contracts (later elected every five years for a period of eighteen months).
h. 367 BC: creation of the praetors, annually elected magistrates in charge of justice and deputies of the consuls.
Creation also of curule aediles (that is patrician aediles) in imitation of the plebeian aediles elected by the 'concilium
plebis' since 471 BC.
'Cursus honorum' = career path, organized in 367 BC. In ascending order: quaestor - aedile - praetor - consul - censor.
Outside of this 'cursus' were the tribunes of the Plebs and the office of dictator.
The Roman 'populus' (originally the people in arms, later a collective term for the Roman citizen body) was divided
after 241 BC into 35 tribes (4 urban and 31 rural).
REPETITION AND FURTHER DETAILS:
- 'Comitium' (pl. 'comitia') = place of assembly (originally).
Four different 'comitia' (popular assemblies) co-existed from the fifth century BC; the voting groups being
respectively 'curiae' ('districts of the city'), 'centuriae' ('centuries') and 'tribus' ('tribes'):
1. 'Comita curiata' (Curiate Assembly): the earliest form of Roman assembly dating from the age of the kings.
Largely replaced from the early Republican period by the Centuriate Assembly, although it continued to confirm the
appointment of magistrates and witness the appointment of priests, adoptions and wills under the chairmanship of the
'pontifex maximus'. In Cicero's time the 30 'curiae' composing this assembly were represented in the 'comitia' by 30
lictors.
2. 'Comitia centuriata' (Centuriate Assembly): an assembly based on five graded property classes divided into 193
centuries. However, as 98 of these centuries were attributed to the first census class, it was possible for the first class
alone to dominate the voting.
Its functions: to enact laws, to elect senior magistrates (consuls, praetors and censors), and to declare war and peace.
Finally, a Roman citizen who had been condemned to death by a magistrate could use his right of appeal
('provocatio') to have his case heard by the Centuriate Assembly.
It met outside the 'pomerium' (sacred boundary of the city), usually in the Campus Martius (see map, p. 3), and in
military order.
3. 'Concilium plebis' (Council of the Plebs): it elected plebeian tribunes and aediles, enacted plebiscites and held trials
for non-capital offences.
4. At an uncertain date, but before 447 BC, the 'Comitia Tributa' (Tribute Assembly) were created in imitation of the
plebeian assembly. Consuls or, in their absence, praetors convoked this assembly which was open to patricians. It
elected quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes, enacted laws and held minor trials.
The regime that emerged after the alterations made during the fifth, fourth and early third century could be described
as a 'patricio-plebeian compact' where rich plebeian landowners shared the interests of the patricians. This compact
did also secure greater unity in the face of external danger. However, you have also to remember that there were
some limits put on this unity (see Source no. 7 on p. 12 of your Source Book).
ROMAN WARS IN ITALY - causes:
- These wars were waged against neighboring peoples.
- Principal causes: growth of Roman population => lack of land; to this should be added plunder and the opportunity
for the commanders of the Roman army to gain military prestige.
ROMAN WARS IN ITALY - consequences:
- Increase in Roman territory and manpower. Territorial gains were integrated into the 'ager Romanus' ('Roman
territory').
- Foundation of Ostia (Rome's harbour) between 380 and 350 to protect the mouth of the Tiber.
- 'Ius Latii' ('right belonging to Latium') = 'Latin rights': the citizens of Rome and individual Latin communities
shared the rights of intermarriage ('conubium'), the right to do business and make legally binding contracts
('commercium'), and the right to change residence ('migratio'), and afterward to acquire citizenship. A useful tool to
grant to favored allies which after 338 BC was not reserved only to the sole communities of the Latium.
- 'Municipium' (pl. 'municipia') = municipality: municipal status in many cases went with 'civitas sine suffragio'
('citizenship without the vote at Rome') though the 'ius suffragii' ('right to vote') might be added later => 'civitas
optimo iure' where its inhabitants possessed 'full Roman citizenship'.
- Roman colonies: at first, small settlements used as garrisons to keep enemies in check. These colonists had full
Roman citizenship.
- 'Socii' ('allies/partners'): as a result of unequal treatises these allies were often required to provide troops for Roman
expeditions and to leave the conduct of their foreign affairs to Rome.
- From the end of the fourth century Rome became an important trading (grain) and manufacturing center (pottery;
high quality bronzes; terracotta sculptures; large and small stone monuments [e.g., funeral altars and sarcophagi]).
- Building boom at Rome: temples, aqueducts, harbor facilities, paved roads ('Via Appia'), expansion of the market
area ('Forum Boarium; cf. map on p. 3).
- Development of large landholdings largely depending on slave labour.
- Development of coinage:
a. In the beginning, valuation was made in 'head of livestock' (= 'pecus'), hence the workd 'pecunia' (= 'wealth in
livestock', then 'money, fortune, riches');
b. IMAGE 8: From the fifth century onwards gradual appearance of bronze (= an alloy of copper and tin) ingots ('aes
rude' = 'rough bronze'), IMAGE 9: subsequently stamped with a mark (e.g a bull; 'aes signatum' = 'stamped bronze');
c. IMAGE 10: Around 289 BC appearance of a proper bronze coinage ('aes grave' = 'heavy bronze'); creation of the
college of three magistrates responsible for the minting of these coins (the 'triumviri monetales');
d. IMAGE 11: In 269 BC the first Roman silver didrachms are issued, depicting Hercules on the obverse (= 'head'),
and IMAGE 12: the she-wolf suckling the infants Romulus and Remus on the reverse (= 'tail'); they were modelled
on pre-existing Campanian coinage. Subdivisions or fractions of the didrachm were made of bronze.
f. IMAGE 13: About 214/211 BC appearance of the first Roman silver denarius; one denarius = 10 'asses'. By about
140 BC (the exact date is unclear) the denarius was retariffed to 16 'asses'. Two of the subdivisions or fractions of the
denarius were made of silver: the half denarius (= 'quinarius'), and the quarter denarius (= 'sestertius'/sesterce); the
other subdivisions/fractions were made of bronze.
- Greek culture (art, architecture, literature, rhetoric) made a strong impact on the Roman elite.
FOR THE NEXT CLASS (26 September):
A. "5. The First Punic War and its consequences"
- Read Chapter VII of your textbook.
- Read the following sources in your sourcebook:
a. Nos. 163 on pp. 125-6 (= Cicero, An Essay about Duties 1.42; 2.25), and 170 on pp. 134-5 (= CIL 10.874, and
875); compare these two texts (Roman attitudes towards profit).
b. Nos. 173-174 on pp. 136-7 (= FIRA 3, p. 393, and p. 481 (on moneylending; although these two inscriptions date
to the imperial period they reflect a situation which was already present in Republican time, see also No. 176 on p.
139 (= Plutarch, The Life of Marcus Cato 21.1, 3, 5-7 [on Cato's financial activities]).
c. Nos. 178-182 on pp. 141-4 (= ROL 4, pp. 274-278 / Livy, A History of Rome 23.48.4-6, 10-12; 23.49.1-3 / Livy, A
History of Rome 25.3.9-13 / P.Lond. 904, ll. 18-38 / New Testament, Luke 2.1-5 [on state contracts and 'publicani'
(sg. 'publicanus' / 'private contractors, tax farmers')]).
B. "6. Hannibal, the arch enemy"
- Read Chapter VIII of your textbook.
- Sources to read: NONE.