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UNIT 14 Self-Serving Bias Fundamental Attribution Error SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Stereotypes Primacy Effect Social Cognition Cognitive Dissonance Schema We are here Attribution (explain others behavior) Just-World Hypothesis Unit 12: Attitude: Formation and change (Persuasion) Foot in the Door Routes to Persuasion Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Culture Social Behavior deindividuation, the self-fulfilling prophecy, bystander effect social facilitation Conformity Impact of Others on the Person Attraction In-Group/OutGroup Treatment of group members Compliance Impact of Others on the Group Group Polarization Group Think The scientific study of the ways in which the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of one individual are influenced by the real, imagined, or inferred behavior or characteristics of other people Major Topics: How you think about people How you explain their behavior Self-Serving Bias Fundamental Attribution Error SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Stereotypes Primacy Effect Social Cognition Cognitive Dissonance Schema We are here Attribution (explain others behavior) Just-World Hypothesis Unit 12: Attitude: Formation and change (Persuasion) Foot in the Door Routes to Persuasion Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Culture Social Behavior deindividuation, the self-fulfilling prophecy, bystander effect social facilitation Conformity Impact of Others on the Person Attraction In-Group/OutGroup Treatment of group members Compliance Impact of Others on the Group Group Polarization Group Think Attribution Theory: tries to explain how people make judgments about the causes of other people’s behavior Three criteria used to judge behavior Distinctiveness: Is this how the person treats everyone or are you different? Consistency: Has the person always treated you this way or is this different? Consensus: Do other people do this same thing or is this really different? Bob walks past you without saying hi. Distinctiveness: Your explanation as to why Bob did this will be different if he does this to everyone in the hall or just you Consistency: Your explanation as to why Bob did this will be different if he always says hi to you or if you don’t really know each other. Consensus: Whether you’re in New York City vs. a college of 600 will change how you explain Bob’s behavior. Fundamental attribution error: when explaining the behavior of others this is the tendency to overemphasize personal causes underemphasize situational causes Actor-Observer Bias: This is the opposite used by us when we explain our own behavior. We overemphasize situational causes and downplay personality. Defensive attribution Self-Serving Bias: Tendency to attribute our successes to our own efforts and our failures to external factors Just-world hypothesis: Assumption bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good people Attribution across cultures varies dramatically Dispositional attribution = behavior is linked to the individual • Situational attribution =behavior is linked to a situation • How we explain someone’s behavior affects how we react to it. They won only because the best athletes on the Central State’s teams were out with injuries – talk about good fortune. ▪ External (situational) ▪ Internal (dispositional) ▪ External (situational) ▪ Internal (dispositional) They won because they have some of the best talent in the country. Anybody could win this region; the competition is so far below average in comparison to the rest of the country. They won because they put in a great deal of effort and practice. Fundamental Attribution Error – underestimating situational influences when evaluating the behavior of someone else. He swerved into my lane because he is a jerk. Actor-observer bias – attributing others’ behaviors to disposition but your own behaviors (even the same behaviors) to situational factors. Example: He swerved into my lane because he is a jerk, but I swerved into the next lane because I was trying to avoid an animal in the road. Self-serving bias – crediting your own successes to disposition, but attributing your own failures to situation. Example: I won the game because I’m talented. I failed the test because the questions were unfair. Personal relationships Political relationships Job relationships Self-Serving Bias Fundamental Attribution Error Unit 12: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Cognitive Dissonance Schema We are here Attribution (explain others behavior) Just-World Hypothesis Stereotypes Primacy Effect Social Cognition Attitude: Formation and change (Persuasion) Foot in the Door Routes to Persuasion Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Culture Social Behavior deindividuation, the self-fulfilling prophecy, bystander effect social facilitation Conformity Impact of Others on the Person Attraction In-Group/OutGroup Treatment of group members Compliance Impact of Others on the Group Group Polarization Group Think The Nature of Attitudes Relatively stable ▪ Beliefs – facts and general knowledge ▪ Feelings – love, hate, like, dislike ▪ Behaviors – inclination to approach, avoid, buy Central Route to Persuasion when the attitude of the audience, or individual, is changed as a result of thoughtful consideration of the message. Peripheral Route to Persuasion occurs when positive or negative cues (such as images, sounds, or language) are associated with the object of the message. An advertisement featuring a song that the audience member likes, or a person whom the audience member sees as appealing might cause a person to have positive feelings toward the brand, without that person ever thinking deeply about the message. Our attitudes predict our behaviors imperfectly because other factors, including the external situation, also influence behavior. Democratic leaders supported Bush’s attack on Iraq under public pressure. However, they had their private reservations. The Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon “start small and build” People come to believe in the idea they have supported Actions feed attitudes which feed actions Easier to change attitudes than actions Occurs whenever a person has two contradictory cognitions or beliefs at the same time. They are dissonant, each one implies the opposite of the other. The less coerced and more responsible we feel for an action the more dissonance. The more dissonance the more likely we are to change our attitude It creates an unpleasant cognitive tension and the person tries to resolve in the following ways: Cognitive dissonance theory states that we are motivated to reduce this uncomfortable feeling by changing our beliefs to match our actions. The dissonance (uncomfortable feeling) is less if we feel that we were forced to perform the action. Thus, the larger the pressure used to elicit the overt behavior, the smaller the tendency to change opinion. Sometimes changing your attitude is the easiest way to solve this. 1. Example: I am a loyal friend, but yesterday I gossiped about my friend Chris…Well, I can’t change my action…but I don’t want to change my view of myself, so my attitude about Chris must be wrong. He really is more of an acquaintance than a friend. Increase the number of thoughts that back one side 2. It was awesome gossip Reduce the importance of one or both of the sides 3. The person I gossiped with won’t really tell that many people. Foot-in-the-door phenomenon – the tendency for people who agree to a small request to comply later with a larger one (examples, “please drive carefully”, Korean War, People’s Temple, training torturers, cheating) Role-Playing Affects Attitudes Role Stanford study Abu Ghraib prison Role playing - subjects who play a role often begin to “become” the role (Zimbardo’s prison study) Power of role conformity! Self-Serving Bias Fundamental Attribution Error Unit 12: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Attribution (explain others behavior) Just-World Hypothesis Stereotypes Primacy Effect Social Cognition Cognitive Dissonance Schema Attitude: Formation and change (Persuasion) Foot in the Door Routes to Persuasion Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Culture Social Behavior deindividuation, the self-fulfilling prophecy, bystander effect social facilitation We are here Conformity Impact of Others on the Person Attraction In-Group/OutGroup Treatment of group members Compliance Impact of Others on the Group Group Polarization Group Think Chameleon empathy effect Fundamental Attribution Error Self-Serving Bias Unit 12: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Attribution (explain others behavior) Just-World Hypothesis Stereotypes Primacy Effect Social Cognition Cognitive Dissonance Schema Attitude: Formation and change (Persuasion) Foot in the Door Routes to Persuasion Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Culture Social Behavior deindividuation, the self-fulfilling prophecy, bystander effect social facilitation We are here Conformity Impact of Others on the Person Attraction In-Group/OutGroup Treatment of group members Compliance Impact of Others on the Group Group Polarization Group Think Conformity: A change in one’s behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people. Unlike obedience, conformity does not require commands or coercion by an authority. Solomon Asch study https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NyDDyT1lDhA Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch Line Judgment Studies Asch tested whether people would conform in situations in which the group’s judgments were obviously incorrect. Participants in the Asch line study showed a high level of conformity, given how obvious it was that the group was wrong in its judgments. CONFORMITY AND OBEDIENCE SOLOMON ASCH STUDY What was the role of… Public versus private conformity? Unanimity of the group? Normative influence? (don’t want to look silly) Private conformity: change of beliefs that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others. Public conformity: superficial change in overt behavior, without a corresponding change of opinion, produced by real or imagined group pressure. Asch studies demonstrate PUBLIC conformity Normative influence: Conformity occurs when a person fears the negative consequences of appearing deviant. If they write answers privately, conformity drops markedly. When the group’s position is unanimous, conformity is greater. If one person dissents (an ally), conformity drops. When Will People Conform to Normative Social Influence? Asch’s research show that conformity does not increase much after group size reaches 4 or 5 other people. Conditions That Strengthen Conformity One is made to feel incompetent or insecure Group has at least three people Group is unanimous One admires the group’s status One has made no prior commitment Others in group observe one’s behavior One’s culture strongly encourages respect for social standards Reasons for Conforming Normative social influence Informational social influence Adolescents Women are slightly more likely than men, but the difference is very small and depends on the specific type of situation. Cultures valuing interpersonal harmony (e.g., some cultures in Asia, Africa, and South America) People with low self-esteem are more likely to conform than those with high selfesteem. Self-Serving Bias Fundamental Attribution Error Unit 12: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Attribution (explain others behavior) Just-World Hypothesis Stereotypes Primacy Effect Social Cognition Cognitive Dissonance Schema Attitude: Formation and change (Persuasion) Foot in the Door Routes to Persuasion Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Culture Social Behavior deindividuation, the self-fulfilling prophecy, bystander effect social facilitation Conformity Impact of We are Others on here the Person Attraction In-Group/OutGroup Treatment of group members Compliance Impact of Others on the Group Group Polarization Group Think Obedience Milgram’s studies on obedience ▪ Procedure ▪ Results ▪ Ethics ▪ Follow up studies “Teacher” is the subject in the experiment who administers the “shocks”. “Learner” is the confederate that received the shocks (when out of sight, the learner was a tape recording) “Authority” is the person administering the experiment; says “please go on”. CONFORMITY AND OBEDIENCE: OBEDIENCE Factors that increase obedience: 1. Physical proximity of authority figure. 2. Perceived legitimacy of authority figure. 3. Distance or depersonalization of victim (learner). 4. Lack of a model for defiance. Factors that did NOT affect obedience: 1. Age 2. Profession 3. Gender 4. Mention by “learner” of a “slight heart condition”. Ordinary people being corrupted by an evil situation Self-Serving Bias Fundamental Attribution Error Unit 12: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Attribution (explain others behavior) Just-World Hypothesis Stereotypes Primacy Effect Social Cognition Cognitive Dissonance Schema Attitude: Formation and change (Persuasion) Foot in the Door Routes to Persuasion Individualistic vs. are CollectivisticWe Culture here deindividuation, the self-fulfilling prophecy, bystander effect social facilitation Conformity Impact of Others on the Person Social Behavior Attraction In-Group/OutGroup Treatment of group members Compliance Impact of Others on the Group Group Polarization Group Think Social facilitation: Refers to improved performance on tasks in the presence of others. Triplett (1898) noticed cyclists’ race times were faster when they competed against others than when they just raced against the clock. Social Facilitation Task difficulty ▪ Home vs. Away Crowding effects ▪ Comedians and Actors ▪ Practical lesson Social Loafing: The tendency of an individual in a group to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when tested individually. Social Loafing - Reasons why? ▪ Less accountability ▪ Tug of war ▪ Clapping/Shouting experiments ▪ View themselves as dispensable ▪ Group projects in school ▪ Free-rider effect ▪ Diffusion of responsibility ▪ Sucker effect Deindividuation: The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. Mob behavior Self-Serving Bias Fundamental Attribution Error Unit 12: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Attribution (explain others behavior) Just-World Hypothesis Stereotypes Primacy Effect Social Cognition Cognitive Dissonance Schema Attitude: Formation and change (Persuasion) Foot in the Door Routes to Persuasion Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Culture Social Behavior deindividuation, the self-fulfilling prophecy, bystander effect social facilitation Conformity Impact of Others on the Person Attraction In-Group/OutGroup We are Treatment of group members Compliance Impact of Others on the Group Group Polarization here Group Think Group Polarization: tendency to shift toward more extreme positions after group discussion Risky Neutral Cautious Group Polarization Internet terrorist organizations ▪ “us vs. them” Groupthink: a mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides the realistic appraisal of alternatives. Watergate cover-up Bay of Pigs Iraq WMD Marshall Plan Cuban Missile Crisis Groupthink- syndrome of bad decision-making Culture: behaviors, ideas, values and traditions shared by a group of people and are transmitted from one generation to the next Norm: understood rule for accepted and expected behavior Personal space Pace of life Changes over the generations The power of social influence is enormous, but so is the power of the individual. Non-violent fasts and appeals by Gandhi led to the independence of India from the British. Gandhi Social control (Power of the situation) vs personal control (Power of the individual) Abu Ghraib Communism Christianity Rosa Parks Inventions Minority influence – only takes one voice to break conformity Self-Serving Bias Fundamental Attribution Error Unit 12: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Attribution (explain others behavior) Just-World Hypothesis Stereotypes Primacy Effect Social Cognition Cognitive Dissonance Schema Attitude: Formation and change (Persuasion) Foot in the Door We are Routes to here Persuasion Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Culture Social Behavior deindividuation, the self-fulfilling prophecy, bystander effect social facilitation Conformity Impact of Others on the Person Attraction In-Group/OutGroup Treatment of group members Compliance Impact of Others on the Group Group Polarization Group Think A set of characteristics believed to be shared by all members of a social category It is usually unfair Most often applied to sex, race, occupation, physical appearance, place of residence, membership in a group or organization Can become the basis for self-fulfilling prophecies Simply called “prejudgment,” a prejudice is an unjustifiable (usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice is often directed towards different cultural, ethnic, or gender groups. Components of Prejudice 1. Beliefs (stereotypes) 2. Emotions (hostility, envy, fear) 3. Predisposition to act (discrimination) Prejudice works at the conscious and [more at] the unconscious level. Therefore, prejudice is more like a knee-jerk response than a conscious decision. Over the duration of time many prejudices against interracial marriage, gender, homosexuality, and minorities have decreased. Americans today express much less racial and gender prejudice, but prejudices still exist. http://implicit.harvard.edu Nine out of ten white respondents were slow when responding to words like “peace” or “paradise” when they saw a black individual’s photo compared to a white individual’s photo (Hugenberg & Bodenhausen, 2003). Prejudice develops when people have money, power, and prestige, and others do not. Social inequality increases prejudice. Ingroup: People with whom one shares a common identity. Outgroup: Those perceived as different from one’s ingroup. Ingroup Bias: The tendency to favor one’s own group. Prejudice provides an outlet for anger [emotion] by providing someone to blame. After 9/11 many people lashed out against innocent Muslim Americans. One way we simplify our world is to categorize. We categorize people into groups by stereotyping them. In vivid cases such as the 9/11 attacks, terrorists can feed stereotypes or prejudices (terrorism). Most terrorists are non-Muslims. Categorization Outgroup homogeneity Other-race effect/Own race-bias ▪ Apparent as early as 3-9 months of age Vivid cases (9/11) Just-world phenomenon Hindsight bias Aggression is any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy done reactively out of hostility or proactively as a calculated means to an end Genetic Influences Twin studies Neural Influences Amygdala Frontal Lobe Biochemical Influences Influence of alcohol Higher levels of testosterone Lower levels of serotonin Saliva studies Aversive Events Frustration-aggression principle ▪ Fight or flight reaction ▪ Aversive stimuli (physical pain, personal insults, foul odors, hot temperatures, cigarette smoke) Social and cultural influences Ostracism (Rejection-induced aggression) Parent-training programs Aggression-replacement programs Observing models of aggression Rape myth Role of pornography/X-rated film study ▪ View partner as less attractive ▪ Women’s friendliness seem more sexual ▪ Sexual aggression seems less serious Acquiring social scripts Media influence/Song lyrics Do video games teach, or release violence? Grand Theft Auto example/Mortal Kombat Catharsis hypothesis? Effect of virtual reality BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL UNDERSTANDING OF AGGRESSION BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL UNDERSTANDING OF AGGRESSION BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL UNDERSTANDING OF AGGRESSION BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL UNDERSTANDING OF AGGRESSION Proximity Mere exposure effect “In me I trust” Online matchmaking and Speed Dating Physical attractiveness First impressions Frequency of dating/Feelings of popularity/Others initial impressions of their personalities. Similarity Similarity breeds content Reward theory of attraction Sheldon algorithm making friends What factors make a person seem attractive? 1. Proximity (mere exposure effect) class photo demo Sally Wesley Sam Maryla Physical appearance Many qualities vary by culture, but a few are consistent: - Youth in women, maturity in men. “Baby” features = large head, large forehead, low set eyes, nose, and mouth, large, round eyes, small nose, round cheeks, small chin Source: www.beautycheck.de Source: www.beautycheck.de Source: www.beautycheck.de Love Passionate love ▪ Schactor two factor theory ▪ College men aroused by fright test ▪ Bridge test Companionate love ▪ Better to choose or have someone choose a partner for you with similar background and interests? Equity 1. Faithfulness 2. Happy sexual relationship 3. Sharing household chores Self-disclosure Altruism Kitty Genovese Bystander Intervention Diffusion of responsibility Bystander effect ALTRUISM ALTRUISM ALTRUISM ALTRUISM ALTRUISM ALTRUISM ALTRUISM ALTRUISM ALTRUISM Social exchange theory Reciprocity norm Social-responsibility Wesley Autrey norm Conflict Social trap Mirror-image perceptions Self-fulfilling prophecy Contact (positive correlation) Cooperation Superordinate goals - Eagles vs. Rattlers ▪ 9/11 ▪ Interracial cooperative learning Communication Win-Win Conciliation GRIT