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NOTES OF THE PUBLISHER
In order to provide readers with the literature on climate
change - an issue that has more impact on the life of
humanity, the National Political Publishing House issued the
book Financial Tracking, Monitoring and Evaluation of
State Budget Expenditures in Response to Climate Change:
Experience Sharing between France and Vietnam.
The book summarizes the content of the seminar of the
same name held on 3 December 2013 by the Assistance
Technique France (ADETEF) in collaboration with the Agence
Française de Développement (AFD) and the Vietnamese
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment.
The seminar focused on the future France - Vietnam
cooperation in the fight against climate change, sharing
experiences in management, monitoring, allocation of the
state budget, projects related to climate change in both
countries, and so on.
We would like to introduce this book.
January 2015
NATIONAL POLITICAL PUBLISHING HOUSE
5
6
We would like to acknowledge the assistance of the following
persons in organising this seminar:
Jean-Claude PIRES, Deputy Director, AFD in Vietnam.
Jean-Noël POIRIER, Ambassador of France to Vietnam.
Rémi LAMBERT, First Counsellor, Embassy of France in
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Vietnam.
Yannick RICHET, Director, Public Management Pole and
We would like to thank the following persons for their
Asian Adviser to the Chair of ADETEF.
Stéphane GIL, Director, ADETEF Asia.
contributions to this seminar:
TRAN Hong Ha, Deputy Minister, Ministry of Natural
NGUYEN Thi Dieu Trinh, Focal point of green growth,
Department of Science, Education, Natural Resources and
Resources and Environment.
Environment, Ministry of Planning and Investment.
Rémi GENEVEY, Country Director, Agence Française de
CHU Thi Thanh Huong, Deputy Director of the Science
Développement (AFD) in Vietnam.
Technology and International Cooperation Division, Secretary
Béatrice LECOMTE, ADETEF/ Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable
of SP-RCC Programme, Department of Meteorology,
Development and Energy.
Hydrology and Climate Change, Ministry of Natural
Pierre BRENDER, ADETEF/ Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable
Resources and Environment.
Development and Energy.
TRUONG
Duc
Tri,
Deputy
Director,
Department
of
DANG Thi Thuy, Expert, Legislation Department, Ministry
of Finance.
Meteorology, Hydrology and Climate Change, Ministry
of Natural Resources and Environment.
NGUYEN Tuan Anh, Deputy Director, Department of
Science, Education, Natural Resources and Environment,
Ministry of Planning and Investment.
This document was prepared by
Hélène MERLOT and Stéphane-Laure CAUBET, ADETEF Asia.
The analyses and conclusions presented in this document are
DANG Cong Khoi, Deputy Director, Legislation Department,
the responsibility of the authors.
Ministry of Finance.
7
8
MOF
Vietnamese Ministry of Finance
MONRE
Vietnamese Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment
MPI
NTP-RCC National Target Programme to Respond to
ACRONYMS
AFD
Vietnamese Ministry of Planning and Investment
Climate Change
ODA
Official Development Assistance
Agence Française de Développement (French
PMR
Partnership for Market Readiness
Development Agency)
POPE
Programme
d’Orientation
des
Politiques
APrT
Adaptation Prioritization Tool
Energétiques (Guidelines for Energy Policy
CDM
Clean Development Mechanism
Development)
CFPD
Cross-functional Policy Document (referred to as
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
DPT in the English version of this paper, see below)
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
COP
Conference of the Parties
SP-RCC
Support Programme to Respond to Climate Change
CPEIR
Climate Public Expenditure and Institutional
Review
DPT
Document de Politique Transversale (Crossfunctional Policy Document)
ERDF
European Regional Development Fund
GHG
Greenhouse gas
IPCC
International Panel on Climate Change
LOLF
Loi Organique Relative aux Lois de Finances/
Legislation Governing Public Finance
MEDDE
Ministère Français de l’Ecologie du Développement
Durable et de l’Energie/ French Ministry of Ecology,
Sustainable Development and Energy
9
10
3) Management of the government’s budget
under the Ministry of Finance’s climate
change mitigation programmes and fiscal
policies
TABLE OF CONTENTS
36
B. Climate change policies and budgeting
in France
40
Notes of the publisher
5
1) Mechanisms for budgeting, monitoring
Acknowledgements
7
and steering the government’s budget
Acronyms
9
expenditures
Overview
13
measures and expenditure monitoring
Presentation of climate shares used in two specific sectors
28
A. Initiatives of the key ministries concerned
with Vietnam’s climate change mitigation
28
1) Support programme to respond to climate
change under Vietnam’s Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment
28
54
Passenger transportation sector
54
Agriculture sector
58
61
IV. Hands-on challenges in policy implementation
70
Conclusion
79
List of presentations
85
Ministry of Planning and Investment
(MPI) in terms of climate change mitigation
33
11
45
III. Working climate change into national policies
2) The financial management role of the
and green growth
40
to climate change impacts in France: Policies,
17
assessing the state budget’s expenditures for
policy
change
2) Climate change mitigation and adaptation
II. Views from both sides on monitoring and
climate change mitigation
climate
mitigation
I. Climate change mitigation - An important focus
for cooperation
for
12
OVERVIEW
I
n the framework of the France - Vietnam year,
celebrating 40 years of diplomatic relations, the
Assistance Technique France (ADETEF) together with
the Agence Française de Développement (AFD), in
coordination with the Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environment, convened some one hundred
participants at a seminar on Tuesday 3 December 2013
on the theme of Financial Tracking, Monitoring and
Evaluation of State Budget Expenditures in Response
to Climate Change: Experience Sharing between
France and Vietnam.
The seminar was co-chaired by Mr. TRAN Hong Ha,
Deputy Minister, Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment, and Rémi GENEVEY, Country Director,
Agence Française de Développement in Vietnam.
Particularly vulnerable to the consequences of
climate change, Vietnam has been developing a set of
climate policies for some years now and is currently
focusing on the monitoring of public expenditures
related to climate change mitigation. During recent
13
high-level bilateral visits, the fight against climate
change was highlighted as an important focus for
cooperation and dialogue between France and Vietnam,
particularly as preparation moves forward for the 21st
Conference of the Parties to be held in Paris in 2015.
Since 2009, through the Support Programme to
Respond to Climate Change (SP-RCC) co-financed by
several international donors, the AFD has been
contributing to the Vietnam’s budget in exchange for
the design and implementation of climate change
policies. In this context, France is pleased to share its
experience in the related field and renew its support for
the ongoing efforts undertaken by Vietnam.
14
The morning of interchange was spent first on
presentations by representatives of the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), the
Ministry of Planning and Investment (MPI) and the
Ministry of Finance (MOF), each of which gave an
update on their activities and the relevant role of their
administration in the design of budgetary allocations
and the monitoring of public expenditures related to
climate change mitigation policies.
The second part of the seminar gave the French
experts representing the ministries of finance and of
sustainable development an opportunity to outline
France’s experience through two presentations. Pierre
BRENDER is the “Climate Planning” programme officer
and Deputy Head of the “Climate Mitigation Policies”
Office at the Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable
Development and Energy (MEDDE). He presented a set
of measures and policies contributing to the fight
against climate change in France: objectives,
stakeholders and management tools. Béatrice LECOMTE
is first Counsellor with the Regional Accounts Chamber
and works as Head of the Financial Affairs Unit at the
MEDDE. She presented the government’s budget
expenditures for climate change mitigation and its
monitoring through an overview of various planning,
monitoring and evaluation tools.
15
These exchanges were followed by working
meetings
between
the
French
experts
and
representatives of the Vietnamese line ministries in order
to identify opportunities for further cooperation aligned
with this first experience-sharing event.
The document herewith summarises the contributions
made and the exchanges that took place during this
seminar.
Mr. TRAN Hong Ha, Deputy Minister,
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
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I. CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION AN IMPORTANT FOCUS FOR COOPERATION
Severely exposed to the challenges of climate change,
Vietnam adopts a climate change mitigation policy. . .
Vietnam’s geographical layout, with its river deltas
and maritime exposure, has a coastline over 3,200 km
long, making it particularly vulnerable to the
consequences of climate change, with the rising sea
level as a foremost consideration. According to a recent
study, a rise of just one meter would affect nearly 5% of
the country’s surface area, 11% of its population and 7%
of its farmland. This would have a negative impact on
10% of the GDP. The Mekong and Red River Deltas just
as the country’s central provinces along the coast are
especially at risk. Various studies conducted to
establish an overall vulnerability index for countries
conclude that Vietnam is among the 15 countries most
vulnerable to the diverse consequences of climate
change. This vulnerability is a threat to the growth
trajectory that has been instrumental in putting
Vietnam well on the way to achieving the Millennium
Development Goals.
With emissions in 2010 estimated at close to 200Mt
CO2eq (aside from emissions relating to forestry and
changes in land use), Vietnam is now considered to be a
low-emission country. On average, one Vietnamese person
17
emits just over 2t CO2eq per year, while worldwide the
average is approximately 6.7t CO2eq/year/person.
Overall, Vietnam represents 1.3% of the world
population and 0.4% of emissions worldwide.
However, the emission rate is growing very rapidly,
with projections indicating that between 2010 and 2030,
Vietnam’s emissions could be multiplied by a factor of
three, notably due to energy consumption.
Confronted with the challenge of climate change
mitigation and Vietnam’s vulnerability to the
phenomenon,
the
Vietnamese
government
is
endeavouring to develop a mid- to long-term strategic
action framework. The Vietnamese government has
approved the following documents:
- National strategy for climate change mitigation
(Decision No. 2139/QD-TTg of 5-12-2011),
- National action plan on climate change for the
2012-2020 period (Decision No. 1474/QD-TTg of 5-10-2012),
- National green growth strategy (Decision No.
1393/QD-TTg of 25-9-2012).
Based on these strategic directions, the government is
continuing to implement specific theme programmes1 and
also attempting to have climate change mitigation issues
____________
1. An example of which is the National Target Programme to
Respond to Climate Change (NTP-RCC), launched under Decision
No. 158/2008/QD-TTg of 2-12-2008.
18
worked into individual sectoral policies as well as in
sectoral, provincial and national investment plans.
The financial requirements are huge, which is
leading to the multiplication of financing projects and
channels.
Vietnam is therefore launching initiatives to
monitor the government’s budget expenditures in the
area of climate change mitigation.
As the leading agency in charge of the planning and
public investments, the MPI set up in April 2012 a
ʺTask Force on Climate Financingʺ2, an inter-ministerial
platform designed to advise Minister of Planning and
Investment
to
submit
to
the
government
recommendations for mobilization and utilization on
climate-financing related issues. In partnership with
the World Bank and United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), in April 2013, the MPI launched
a process to review the governmentʹs climate change
mitigation expenditures. The overall thrust of this
review is to support the government and to improve
the allocation and efficiency of public expenditures to
implement the government’s strategic priorities in the
fields of adaptation/ resilience in the face of climate
change impacts and of greenhouse gas emission
reductions. This cross-cutting process initially focused on
____________
2. The MPI’s Decision No. 505/QD-BKHDT of 25-4-2012.
19
five sectors: (1) environment, (2) agriculture and rural
development, (3) industry and commerce, (4) construction
and transport and (5) communication. In addition to the
national level, it was applied as a pilot measure in three
provinces Bac Ninh, Quang Nam and An Giang.
Moreover, Vietnam has been receiving for several
years now budget support from donors (AFD, JICA, WB,
AusAid, Government of Canada, Korea Eximbank) under
the Support Programme to Respond to Climate Change
(SP-RCC). This involves annual budget assistance
packages underpinning the implementation of a public
policy matrix and providing support for dialogues
between donors and the Vietnamese ministries. Significant
funds have been remitted to the government’s budget
under the SP-RCC: MUS$ 140 in 2010, MUS$ 220 in 2011,
MUS$ 260 in 2012, more than MUS$ 220 in 2013 and
around MUS$ 265 in 2014.
The government of Vietnam is desirous of
allocating a significant share of this budget assistance
(non-earmarked) to funding priority projects for
climate change mitigation.
In recent years, Vietnam has taken several decisive
steps to set up practical procedures for the financial
mechanism referred to as the SP-RCC:
™ The main points of this mechanism were
validated on 10 December 2010 by the Government
Office (Government Officeʹs Official Letter No.
8981/VPCP-QHQT);
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™ With support from donors, the MONRE
developed a set of criteria to identify and select
“climate change” projects. The list was approved
by the Deputy Minister (Decision No. 1719/QDTTg of 4-10-2011);
™ Additionally, the MONRE drafted Guide
No. 3939/BTNMT-KTTVBDKH of 25-10-2011 in
order to develop the use of these selection
criteria. An inter-ministerial committee made up
of representatives from the MONRE, MPI and
MOF met to review, in the light of this mechanism,
a long list of investment projects from provinces,
cities and line ministries. This process led to a
short-list of 62 “climate change” projects in
accordance with these criteria (such as hydraulic
structure, dike and forestry sector projects);
™ The inter-ministerial Circular No. 03/2013/TTLTBTNMT-BTC-BKHDT was approved by the
MONRE, MOF and MPI on 5 March 2013, which
spells out the conditions for implementing this
financial mechanism (procedures for project
selection, funding allocation and monitoring their
use). In 2013, 11 priority projects received funding
in an amount equivalent to €12 million.
The discussion process around this financial
mechanism made it possible to highlight various
methodological difficulties due to the complexity of the
21
subjects: the link between development projects and
“climate” projects, prioritisation of initiatives, assessment
of project additionality, budget priority given to policies
contributing to mitigation or adaptation targets, etc.
France is one of Vietnam’s leading partners in climate
change mitigation . . .
With over €15 billion in funding packages granted
since 2005 for activities with a positive co-benefit on the
climate change issue, the AFD is now a major and
innovative actor internationally in the area of “climate”
funding in terms of both quantity and quality,
especially with regard to the methods and financial
instruments used. Due to a high level of funding, the
flexibility and diversity of the tools, and familiarity
with the field and recognized experience, the AFD has
comparative advantages to purse and consolidate its
performance in implementing French commitments
toward developing countries in the area of climate
change mitigation and in drawing upon international
and European “climate” resources or mandates.
For this, the AFD has an ambitious strategic
commitment and action plan 2012-2016 based on three
focal points that giving structure, with the operational
application of these pillars being differentiated
according to geographic areas of intervention:
22
™ An on-going targeted financial commitment on
climate issues representing 50% of AFD grants to
developing countries and 30% of grants from its
affiliate PROPARCO to the private sector;
™ A systemic measurement of the carbon footprint
of projects funded, based on a rigorous, transparent
methodology;
™ A policy of project selectivity based on their
impact on the climate, taking into account the
level of development of the concerned countries.
YES
if the support is
not
EMISSIVE
concessional.
projects
(between
10kteqCO2/year
If the support is
YES
YES
concessional,
YES if and only
and
if the country
1MteqCO2/year)
has an
acceptable
climate policy
YES
The possibility for the AFD to finance emissive projects
depends on the level of development of
the concerned countries and their “climate” policy
Category 1
(Sub-Saharan
Africa, LDCs,
priority poor
countries in
crisis)
MITIGATION
projects and
projects with
NEGLIGIBLE
impact
(between
-10kteqCO2/year
and
10kteqCO2/year)
Category 2
(MICs and
others)
Category 3
(Countries
with a green
and inclusive
mandate for
growth)
if the support is
concessional, no
HIGHLY
retrocession of
NO
EMISSIVE
concessionality
unless the
projects
to the end
country has an
(over
beneficiary
acceptable
1MteqCO2/year)
unless the
climate policy
NO
country has an
acceptable
climate policy
YES
YES
In Vietnam, French cooperation supports various
projects that are contributing to the fight against climate
change (which is true of 43% of AFD’s commitments
during the 2006-2012 period, e.g. €342.5 million) in
terms of both mitigation and adaptation. France is
YES
23
24
particularly active in the following sectors: agriculture,
energy, water (supply, irrigation and flood control) and
transportation (national railway network and Hanoi
metro project).
Along with JICA, the AFD was one of the early
partners of the SP-RCC. Through one-off expert
missions, the AFD shared in the MONRE think tanks on
the subject of identifying the criteria that characterize
“climate” projects and, more recently, in discussions on
the inter-ministerial circular spelling out the terms of the
SP-RCC funding mechanism.
“Climate” Outlook - AFD in Vietnam
wide range of activities contributing to climate
change mitigation in Vietnam:
„ Improvement of urban collective utilities;
„ Development of financial institutions and tools
with a strong environmental and social impact;
„ Contribution to developmental projects in the
fields of transportation and energy;
„ Water control and flood prevention;
„ Support for a shift in public policies (budget aid,
sector dialogue, experience interchange).
. . . and is pleased to share its experience with
partners in terms of tracking state budget expenditures.
Since its Legislation Governing Public Finance (Loi
Organique Relative aux Lois de Finances - LOLF) came into
effect, France has been using new tools to steer interministerial policies. Thus, the government’s budget is
no longer established by ministries, but split into 34
missions, each of which corresponds to one overarching
government policy. These missions themselves bring
together several programmes that pool the resources
dedicated to a public policy within a ministry.
However, certain public policies that are cross-cutting
by definition go beyond the framework of just one
programme or even one mission. These public policies
are the focal point of a Cross-functional Policy
Document (Document de Politique Transversale, referred
to hereinafter by its French acronym DPT).
Vietnam Strategy 2013-2015
(Country Framework for Action)
In its intervention strategy 2013-2015, the AFD intends
to support Vietnam in order to turn its growth model
into a more sustainable and equitable one. This
objective covers three major intervention pillars:
„ Promote sustainable, inclusive urban development;
„ Support modernisation of private enterprises
with a strong environmental and social impact;
„ Coach Vietnam as it copes with the challenges
of climate change.
By engaging the needed financial instruments and
partnerships, the AFD will provide support for a
25
26
DPTs are tools to facilitate making decisions that
contribute to building inter-ministerial policy coordination
and providing greater budgetary legibility with regard
to inter-ministerial policies. Annexed to each draft
finance law, they are designed for parliamentarians and
freely accessible by all.
There are DPTs in 18 different areas, including
climate change mitigation. The DPT on the theme of
“Climate Change Mitigation” has been annexed to draft
finance laws since 2008. It contains a summary of the
government’s budget and fiscal expenditures and
outlines the indicators of performance monitoring that
explain the implementation of policies for adapting to
climate change and greenhouse gas mitigation. Its
purpose is to outline the appropriations put into
implementation of the measures outlined in France’s
Climate Plan3 and National Climate Change Adaptation
Plan4 as well as the appropriations for climate change
mitigation.
____________
3. France’s Climate Plan is available at: http://www.developpementdurable.gouv.fr/Plan-climat-de-la-France.html,
the
Climate
Plan
summarizes the goals of France’s policy for mitigation of greenhouse
gases, the actions taken and relevant emissions projections. It has been
updated about every two years since 2004.
4. National Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2011-2015 is
available at: http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/-Plan-nationald-adaptation-2011-.html
27
II. VIEWS FROM BOTH SIDES ON MONITORING
AND ASSESSING THE STATE BUDGET’S
EXPENDITURES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION
A. Initiatives of the key ministries concerned with
Vietnam’s climate change mitigation policy
The climate change mitigation policy is committed
to ministries and local authorities. We will focus in
particular on the ministries that are most concerned
with this issue, namely the MONRE, MPI and MOF.
1) Support programme to respond to climate change
under Vietnam’s Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment5
In order to meet the requirements of the relevant
ministries and local authorities in terms of the
management of investment projects in the field of the fight
against climate change in the SP-RCC, as well as requests
from donors, an open and transparent financial
management system, which helps to renew and to examine
the level of ODA loans has been developed and approved
____________
5. Extract from presentation by TRUONG Duc Tri, Deputy Director,
Department of Meteorology, Hydrology and Climate Change, Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment. The presentation can be viewed on
the AFD website: http://www.afd.fr/home/pays/asie/geo-asie/afd-vietnam/
ctnscroll_ActualitesList/6_18
28
by the MPI, MOF and MONRE. This is the inter-ministerial
Circular No. 03/2013/TTLT-BTNMT-BTC-BKHDT of 5-3-2013.
This circular outlines the procedure to be followed in
management of government funding with regard to
investment projects contributing to the “climate” policy.
These projects were previously identified on the basis of a
set of assessment criteria and included in the Prime
Minister’s Decision No. 1719/QD-TTg of 4-10-2011.
This circular is applied by:
- The organization in charge of managing and
steering the programme such as the MONRE,
MOF and MPI;
- The organization in charge of implementing the
programme:
™ Ministries and agencies of ministerial rank;
™ People’s committees of cities and provinces
under central authority.
Funding sources for implementing SP-RCC programmes:
- Government’s annual draft finance law:
Provision for funding sources concerning the
projects validated by the prime minister and
appearing on the SP-RCC programme listed in
the annual draft finance law.
- Local budget: The local authorities are responsible
for making the local annual budget available to
projects under the SP-RCC programme.
29
- Other legal funding sources: The harnessing of
contributions from organisations, the corporate
world and individuals to implement SP-RCC
programmes must be in compliance with the
regulations in force and included in the funding
sources of the other programmes and projects for
effective use of the budget.
Structure of funding sources:
The State budget covers expenses for the SP-RCC
programme for: construction, equipment, “non-build”
solutions (reforestation projects); project management;
consultation for construction work.
The local budget and other legal funding sources
cover expenses for compensation, land expropriation
(allowances due when land is expropriated) and other
legal expenses.
Sharing of responsibilities between the programme
authorities and the MONRE in implementation of the
inter-ministerial Circular No. 03/2013/TTLT-BTNMTBTC-BKHDT of 5-3-2013.
For climate change, the programme authority (e.g.
the provinces) is firstly responsible for:
- Developing proposals for investment projects to
facilitate implementation of the climate change
mitigation policy and submitting them to the
MONRE for review. The inter-ministerial expert
30
The MONRE is then responsible for:
- Developing a plan to negotiate for and mobilise
funding.
- Submitting to the Prime Minister for approval the
annual climate change mitigation policy framework.
- Assessing the performance of the annual climate
change mitigation policy framework in consultation
with donors.
- Adjusting and expanding upon, if deemed
necessary, the performance indicators of the
priority projects.
- Setting up an inter-ministerial review committee
to decide the list of priority projects.
- Coordinating the financial needs for the
implementation of the project of the year n+1 in
order to submit it to the competent authorities for
examination and validation.
- Giving its opinion on the draft plan for allocation of
funds to accredited “climate change” projects.
- Giving its opinion on the project assessment
results and approvals under this programme.
- Reviewing and assessing project execution, when
deemed necessary.
- Reporting at mid-year and at year’s end, to the
Prime Minister and national climate change
mitigation Committee, on the progress of the
SP-RCC programme performance.
- Making available to the donors the annual
financing plan for the SP-RCC programme,
committee assesses the projects and makes up a
list of priority projects in compliance with the
existing provisions.
- Arranging for assessment and approval of the
projects, then forwarding the assessment results
and project approval decision to the MPI, MOF
and MONRE for opinion. On the basis of the
opinions of these three ministries, the next step is
to plan for implementation of the accredited
projects.
- Implementing the projects funded under the
-
-
-
-
SP-RCC programme in harmony with other
current programmes and/ or projects in order to
ensure their effectiveness.
Developing the draft budget for year n+1 and
forwarding it to the programme authorities and
other relevant departments prior to 10 July for
review and consolidation.
Reporting on the investment projects in accordance
with the provisions in force on a mid-year and
yearly basis.
Submitting the mid-year reports to the MONRE
prior to 15 July and the yearly reports prior to
15 March of year n+1.
Auditing the projects in accordance with the
provisions in force.
31
32
along with the plan for allocation of funds for
each project, if the need arises.
2) The financial management role of the Ministry of
Planning and Investment (MPI) in terms of climate
change mitigation and green growth6
The MPI performs the general functions of public
management in terms of planning, investments and
statistics.
Under the national strategy for climate change
mitigation (Decision No. 2139/QD-TTg of 5-12-2011),
the national action plan (Decision No. 1474/QD-TTg of
5-10-2012) and the national target programme to
respond to climate change (Decision No. 158/2008/QD-TTg
of 2-12-2008), the MPI is to submit proposals and
coordinate the funding sources needed for
implementation of the investment projects mobilised on
the basis of the tasks assigned by the national climate
change mitigation Committee.
Under the green growth strategy (Decision
No. 1393/QD-TTg of 25-9-2012), the MPI is charged of
steering and setting up mechanisms and policies with
the MOF and other ministries. They are then
____________
6. Extract from statement made by NGUYEN Tuan Anh, Deputy
Director, Department of Science, Education, Natural Resources and
Environment, Ministry of Planning and Investment can be viewed on the
AFD website: http://www.afd.fr/home/pays/asie/geo-asie/afd-vietnam/
ctnscroll_ActualitesList/6_18
33
responsible for effectively carrying out the distribution
of national and overseas funding sources.
Thus, the MPI plays a major role in monitoring the
government’s budget expenditures for climate change
mitigation.
The job of the MPI in terms of climate change
mitigation and green growth involves:
¾ Firstly, reinforcing mobilisation of foreign funding
ear-marked for climate change mitigation in
Vietnam by the following actions:
™ Mobilising and coordinating the use of ODA
funds;
™ Taking advantage of opportunities made
available through the Green Climate Fund;
™ Creating a task force on climate funding;
™ In coordination with the Frankfurt School of
Finance and Management (FFS) and UNEP, making
a study of the various institutional arrangements
with potential access to funding sources;
™ Coordinating with the World Bank and UNDP a
task involving research and formulating different
options for financial initiatives that contribute to
the climate change mitigation policy.
™ Task force capacity-building with regard to the
MPI’s climate and green growth funding, as
well as in other local and central departments
involved with this issue.
34
¾ Secondly, putting in place policies relating to
climate change by:
™ Writing up “Guidelines regarding green
investments in Vietnam”.
™ Drafting a “Selection grid for accredited climate
change projects” (Adaptation Prioritization Tool APrT). This tool enables the government to
prioritise initiatives to adapt to the effects of
climate change and, on this basis, allocate a
budget appropriate to these initiatives;
™ Developing “low-carbon” scenarios during
2010-2030.
™ Proposing Vietnam’s contribution to the
Partnership for Market Readiness (PMR) on the
basis of coordination with the MONRE.
™ Following through with the Climate Public
Expenditure and Institutional Review (CPEIR).
- The Vietnam Green Growth Strategy (VGGS) and
National
Action
Plan
on
Climate
Change
(NAPCC), approved in 2012;
- The National Green Growth Action Plan (GGAP),
(Decision No. 403/QD-TTg of 20-3-2014); and
- The National Target Programme to Respond to
Climate Change (NTP-RCC) - three steps (20082011, 2012-2015, and after 2015).
3) Management of the government’s budget under
the Ministry of Finance’s climate change mitigation
programmes and fiscal policies7
The promulgation of a set of laws for the protection
of the environment and the fight against climate change
is a primary mission in Vietnam, is embodying the
Central Party Resolution, the National Strategy, the
Five-year socio-economic development plan
(2011-2015)
Government’s Action Plan, the competent ministries
and local authorities in response to the fight against
This plan highlights the major threats to development posed by
climate change. The national target programme to
climate change and affirms the government’s determination to better
respond to climate change confirms the commitment of
manage national resources and the climate change-related risks.
____________
Current climate change strategies
7. Taken from the presentation by DANG Cong Khoi, Deputy
- The Vietnam National Climate Change Strategy,
Director, Legislation Department, Ministry of Finance and can be
viewed on the AFD website: http://www.afd.fr/home/pays/asie/geo-
approved in December 2011 (VCCS);
asie/afd-vietnam/ctnscroll_ActualitesList/6_18
35
36
Vietnam to fight against climate change closely with the
fight against storms and floods; search and
international community. Under this programme, the
rescue disaster victims;
relevant ministries and local authorities establish and
¾ Five million hectares of plantation programme,
implement adaptation activities to climate change and
forest protection and development programme,
reduce GHG emissions while integrating them into
ticket allocation programme for the forest
their strategies and their planning and development.
protection and reforestation...
The Government has a strong interest and provides
significant resources to the fight against climate change
Expenditures for implementation of NTP - RCC
through the development and implementation of action
Commitment authorisations: VND 1,965 billion from
plans throughout the country such as:
the following funding sources:
¾ Provision of credits required for the implementation
of NTP-RCC;
- Foreign funding sources: 50%
¾ Allocation of budget appropriations for scientific
- National funding sources: 50% (including 30%
programmes and technologies the service of the
from central budget; 10% from local budget; 10%
national target programme to fight against
from other sources)8.
climate change;
¾ Contribution to budgetary fund to implement the
policy framework in the context of strengthening
the fight against climate change capacity;
¾ Allocation
of
funding
to
implement
the
enhancement of neighborhoods and residential
roads programme to deal with floods in the
Mekong Delta;
¾ Boathouses building programme in the event of
In addition to the considerable budget expenditures
made at the national level, different measures have
been taken by the Vietnamese government to tap into
other funding sources.
Various types of preferential policies developed
under the climate change mitigation strategy are being
____________
storms; rehabilitation of river and sea dykes;
37
8. Prime Minister’s Decision No. 158/2008/QD-TTg of 2-12-2008.
38
equipment and semi-finished products which
cannot be produced locally.
applied by the MOF in order to provide an additional
source:
Contribution to the environment protection fund:
Fiscal policies:
- Funding for awareness-raising activities regarding
climate change mitigation and the CDM;
- Funding for the review, approval, management
and monitoring of projects generated by the CDM;
- Funding for the development of CDM concept
design documents;
- Price subsidy policies for the Environment
Protection Fund for products manufactured by
CDM projects:
™ Electricity generation using renewable energies:
wind, solar, geothermic and tidal energy;
™ Electricity generation from emanations of
methane (CH4) from waste/ residue disposal
sites and coal mining operations.
™ Corporate taxation: Corporations are taxed at a
rate of 10% for a 15-year period if:
- They derive their income from environmental
activities;
- They derive their income from carrying out
new investment projects with an environmental
protection component.
Furthermore, companies that hold greenhouse gas
emissions reduction certificates have a corporate tax
exemption where the income is sourced from the
transfer of certified emissions reductions (CERs).
Import and export customs duties:
- Customs duty exemption applies to the importing
of production machines, equipment and tools used
directly for the collection, storage, transfer,
recycling and elimination of waste, in
environmental observation and analysis and
production of renewable energies;
- Customs duty exemption applies to the importing
of goods by accredited investment project under
the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) used
for the generation of fixed assets, raw materials,
39
B. Climate Change Policies and Budgeting in France
1) Mechanisms for budgeting, monitoring and
steering the government’s budget expenditures for
climate change mitigation9
The purpose of outlining the mechanisms for budgeting,
____________
9. Taken from the contribution by Béatrice LECOMTE, ADETEF/
Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy.
40
monitoring and steering of the government’s budget
ministries) and at the operational level. Overall
expenditures for climate change mitigation is to show
consistency is ensured by having a continuing
how, in France, the budgetary system makes it possible
movement from forecast of the expenditures to actual
to monitor cross-cutting policies such as climate
disbursement for them and, in return, drafting of an
change.
update on execution submitted back to Parliament in
After outlining the characteristics of the LOLF
the same form as the forecast.
enacted in 2001 and tantamount to the “financial
constitution,” the first French expert sharing in the
However, such an approach is limited by its
seminar outlined the main objectives and operational
verticality: one programme per policy and one policy
procedures of such legislation. The appropriations are
per programme.
grouped by public policy in coherent clusters bringing
together
all
the
their
to address cross-cutting policies bringing together
the
sources dealing with various issues such as climate
performance of the relevant actions seeks to increase
change? This theme flows through 31 programmes:
the effectiveness of public management.
energy, transportation, risk prevention, agriculture and
implementation.
A
resources
strategy
necessary
for
for
Under these circumstances, what is done in France
monitoring
The budget structure provides the basis for
research, to mention only a few. A tool was therefore
parliamentary discussion and for management of the
created to deal with this - the overarching policy
appropriations received during the year. It furthermore
document rounding out the finance law and tabled in
highlights a managerial challenge because of its matrix
support of this draft to inform parliamentarians of
structure, in that it describes the stakeholders and
expenditures that have been made in this area.
departments that will implement the public policies
Actual implementation right in the departments
and sponsor them at the local level. Finally, it is based
contemplated in the finance law was analysed in its
on improving performance at the policy and strategic
dimension of dialogue between the strategic levels of
levels (documents submitted to Parliament and the line
the administration and the operational aspect in
41
42
territorial implementation. Under such a contractual
highest policy level in order to succeed. This
approach, appropriations assigned to implement such a
change was implemented in France over a ten-
policy segment link to an outcome goal to be reached
year
and, at the end, from the local level to the central has to
transformation of public finances.
period,
resulting
in
the
complete
submit a report on the outcomes achieved prior to
setting new targets for the next year.
Key goals of France’s public finance legislation –
At the year’s end, the annual management report
A top-down performance and management approach
summarizes from the financial, operational and policy
standpoints the results achieved that are all put up for
vote by Parliament under the accounts bill. The
Promote the
multiyear strategy
for improved
forecasting and
management
accounts are then certified by the Court of Auditors.
The role of this agency is like that of auditors in the
corporate world.
Improve
transparency and
control at all levelsfrom Parliament to
the operational
department
Improve the
efficiency of public
management
In conclusion, the parameters for the success of
these new management approaches were highlighted:
¾ Firstly, the setting up of a coordinated crosscutting steering mechanism designed to create
an overall dynamics (because, in addition to its
y In the public finance
programming law, then
annually in the draft
finance law
budgetary procedure, it defines a managerial
project that implies the adherence of the staff
involved), and
¾ Secondly, compliance with an ambitious but
realistic timeframe that must reach up to the
43
44
Budget documents for
Parliament are clearer and
more informative, thus
enabling better decisions to
be made and greater
control
y Greater
management
leeway and increased
responsibility are given to
the sponsors of public
policy, to the “bosses” of
their organisations
y Budgets
driven
by
results: the targets to be
reached are monitored
by indicators
2) Climate change mitigation and adaptation to
climate change impacts in France: Policies and
measures for expenditure monitoring10
France feels that the consultative treatment of
climate issues is very important, in particular under the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC). In 2008, it made the Energy
Climate Package one of its priorities when it chaired the
European Union. Since then, it has worked with its
European partners toward meeting their commitments
under the Kyoto Protocol between 2013 and 2020.
Finally, it offered to host the 21st Conference of the
Parties to the UNFCCC, to be held at Paris-Le Bourget
in late 2015, on which occasion an agreement binding
upon all parties will be sought.
With regard to the reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions, France has already enacted ambitious, longterm legislation with the target of cutting by four its
greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 (fleshed out for the first
time in the framework legislation known as the “POPE”
programme (Programme d’orientation de la politique
énergétique) which sets the guidelines for energy policy,
enacted in 2005 and reaffirmed since then). A draft law to
____________
10. Contribution by Pierre BRENDER, ADETEF/ Ministry of Ecology,
Sustainable Development and Energy.
45
phase in the energy transition for green growth was
prepared subsequent to a far-reaching national debate on
the energy transition, which took place during the first
half of 2013. It is expected to spell out the objectives to
2030 and put in place the measures needed to achieve
them, enabling this top priority to be reinforced beyond
the commitments made to 2020 under the energy-climate
change package (a 21% reduction compared with 2005 of
allocations under a community emissions quota exchange
that brings together the main greenhouse gas spewing
facilities in the European Union, and also a 14% reduction
compared with 2005 of emissions from sectors not
covered by the foregoing mechanism: transportation,
construction, agriculture, etc.). Sectoral policies targeting
all mitigation initiatives are implemented in the various
sectors. They are summarized in France’s Climate Plan11
and the Report on the Monitoring Mechanism that France
submits biannually to the European Commission.12
Rounding out its greenhouse gas mitigation policy,
France is also gradually enhancing its policy of
adaptation to the impacts of climate change, which will be of
increased urgency, given the belatedness of implementing
measures to control greenhouse gas emissions. A national
____________
11. http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/Le-plan-climatde-la-France-plan-d,14496
12. http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Fr_RMS_
2013__.pdf
46
adaptation strategy13 was drawn up seven years ago,
embodying 43 recommendations that respond to four
main objectives:
- Ensure safety and public health,
- Address inequalities in view of the threat,
- Limit costs and take advantage of opportunities,
- Preserve natural heritage.
A five-year national climate change adaptation plan
(PNACC 2011-201514) has been drafted since then. It
purports to improve knowledge about the impacts,
inform society about the issues, include adaptation in
existing policies by considering the interactions
between activities and pinpointing responsibilities in
terms of implementation and funding. A mid-term
review was recently completed (mid-2013),15 which
showed the overall satisfactory forward movement of
the plan (such as 81 actions of the 84 targeted). The
adaptation policy focuses notably on review of the risk
benchmarks. So, with regard to the probable rising of
the sea level which may not be a direct threat to
____________
13. http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Strategie_
Nationale_2-17_Mo-2-2.pdf
14. http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/Contenu-du-plannational-d
15. http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/Plan-national-dadaptation-au,37066.html
47
persons, but rather gives rise to wide-ranging financial
and logistical issues, the parameters prevailing over the
size of coastal infrastructure work have been reviewed.
While a comparison with historical extremes was used
up to the present, it is now required to take into account
a possible rising of 40 to 60cm of the sea level in
vulnerability studies. And further, with regard to
coastline risks, a call for activity relocation projects has
been launched by the Ministry of Sustainable
Development rounds out the local initiatives and
pledges of EU-funded appropriations.
In order for it to work, the “climate” policy must be
taken into account and implemented throughout the
sectors in its mitigation and adaptation dimensions.
This requires inter-ministerial mobilisation. The
DPT Climat (or Cross-functional Policy Document)16
that has been annexed to each draft finance law since
2008 in order to inform the parliamentarians regarding
the government’s budget expenditure being put into
this policy (both in terms of budget expenditure and tax
cuts) is one of the support tools used in policy decisionmaking. Coordinated by the General Directorate for
____________
16. http://www.performance-publique.budget.gouv.fr/sites/performance_
publique/files/farandole/resources/2014/pap/pdf/dpt/DPT2014_climat.pdf
48
Energy and Climate of the MEDDE, it currently brings
together 31 programmes sponsored by a dozen
different ministries. The policies hinge upon three
pillars: mitigation (spelled out at the sectoral level),
analysis of climate change impacts and adaptation in
their domestic dimension as previously outlined, and
finally international commitments.
In order to give an overview of the expenditures
committed in the government’s budget, taking into
account budget expenditures likewise committed for
purposes other than those entailed by implementation
of the “climate” policy, the choice was made to
introduce a sum of expenditures weighted by a
“climate share”, thus highlighting the importance of the
climate policy in the various policies.
which expenditures to upgrade the thermal performance of
state-owned buildings are handled. Their share in the
expenditures under programme 309 managed by France
Domaine comes under periodic review. On this basis,
15% of appropriations for major renovations are taken
into account, 25% of appropriations for corrective
maintenance, of which a considerable share is used to
replace furnaces with more energy-efficient models and
only 10% of preventive maintenance costs, of which a
lesser proportion is used for operations designed to reduce
energy consumption.
- The
action
includes
staff
costs.
Only
the
appropriations for staff in charge of defining and moving
the climate policy along are covered (a climate share of
100% is limited to such full-time equivalents, a climate
share of 0% is applied to the cost of staff whose missions
are only indirectly related to the climate policy).
Three types of cases are encountered
- The action (investments, miscellaneous costs excluding
- The action (respectively a part of it) contributes
staff) indirectly contributes to the climate policy. In
directly and primarily to the “climate” policy, so
this case, a climate share is applied, highlighting the scope
the appropriations mobilised are counted in full. The
of greenhouse gas emissions reduction in the socio-
climate share is then “100%” (respectively indicating the
economic assessment of projects where such an assessment
share of relevant appropriations in the overall action).
can be made (e.g. investments in high-speed rail transport
That is notably what happens with funding from
infrastructure for which a climate share of 8% is applied).
Observ’ER who monitors the development of renewable
When such an assessment is not available, flat rates
energies in Europe and worldwide. This is also the way in
giving a qualitative indication of multiple targets and
their relative priority are used. For instance, government
49
50
support for innovative crop insurance schemes covering
most climate-related risks are included at 10%. This
encourages farmers to take climate-related hazards into
account in their choice of practices and informs them, by
means of the risk premium, of their level of exposure to
risk and its evolution.
For tax expenditures, a simpler approach is used:
Only expenditures that are, as a matter of priority,
related to implementing a pillar of the “climate” policy
are counted (no “climate share” calculation), the other
expenditures are excluded from the DPT Climat. So
among the measures that promote thermal renovation of
buildings, the eco-loan at zero interest that encourages
heavy renovation work is included in the DPT Climat,
but the loss of income due to the lower VAT allowed for
the cost of renovations done by professionals, initiated to
combat illicit work, is not factored in.
Given the foregoing scenarios, the government’s
expenditures in 2013 were broken down as follows:
€2.64 billion in budgetary expenditure, a very
significant part of which is dedicated to research and to
the transportation sector, and €1.38 billion in tax
expenditures incurred essentially to implement the
greenhouse gas emissions mitigation policy in the
construction and energy sectors.
51
Taking a broader look at the assessment, by using
lump-sum climate shares of 0%/ 50%/ 100% in an
approach similar to that used in other assessments of
international scope on the basis of “Rio-type markers”,
(e.g.: consolidation of the climate share of climate
expenditures in the EU budget17), recognising measures
funded directly by consumers, such as the feed-in tariffs
for renewable electrical energies, taxes applied directly
to certain government agencies such as the French
Environment and Energy Management Agency (Agence
de l’environnement et de la maîtrise de l’énergie- ADEME)
and expenditures incurred under funding secured by
means of an exceptional loan taken out in 2010. All in all,
over €10 billion is being poured into government’s
“climate” funding. Energy, transportation, research and
construction are included therein (and in this order), as
well as the four leading budgetary line-items.
To illustrate, the breakdown of transportationrelated expenditures shows that each of the three
mitigation policy levers in this sector entails
considerable expenditure (support for the development
of the cleanest means of transport, cutting down on the
intensity of greenhouse gases in energies used in this
sector and improving the energy efficiency of the
different modes, notably of road transport which is the
source of most greenhouse gas emissions in the sector).
____________
17. http://www.ieep.eu/assets/1349/Tracking_system_for_climate_
expenditure_in_the_post-2013_EU_budget.pdf
52
A sectoral breakdown of expenditures incurred for
climate change impact assessment and implementation of
the adaptation policy is also given. It shows that
monitoring is not only limited to the measures provided
for under the PNACC, but also recognises measures that
promote more resilient practices, even though they were
already supported for other co-benefits before an
adaptation policy was specifically implemented. The
priority given to awareness raising is included among the
expenditures provided for, while few investments are
recognised, because firstly, their funding is more related
to the local authorities, and secondly, investment
financing that is recognised in Vietnam under climate
investments (such as dike maintenance) is picked up in a
different annex to the draft finance law under risk
protection: only their reinforcement by virtue of
submersion risk reassessment can validly be included in
the DPT and particular attention is given to avoid any
double counting between these documents.
assessing the overall consistency of the resources
mobilised and the priority given them in sectors where
they would promote the most significant changes.
Greenhouse gas emissions reduction is now accounting
for most “climate” expenditures in France and
incurring very substantial long-term investment and
research expenditures.
PRESENTATION OF CLIMATE SHARES USED
IN TWO SPECIFIC SECTORS
Passenger transportation sector
Integrated treatment is given to the mitigation and
adaptation polices in the DPT Climat.
Although government expenditures are only validly
included as one of the pillars of the “climate” policy in
addition to such measures as the introduction of a
carbon price signal, monitoring them is helpful in
53
Several types of appropriations are recognised in the
DPT Climat.
The following are considered to have a 100% climate
share:
54
* “Tax expenditures” (tax cuts) used to support the
development of “alternative fuels,” in particular
biofuels which, under life cycle analysis, are
shown to have much better GHG balances than
their fossil fuel alternative.
* Appropriations to support the most energyefficient vehicles. The main support of this policy
is the bonus/ malus system put in place by the
government to encourage the purchase of the
least polluting vehicles on the new vehicles
market. Interestingly, expenditures under this
programme are virtually covered by the malus
resource applied to the most polluting vehicles.
Put together, the sum of these expenditures
indicates the size of the displacement amounts,
and not the expenditures for which tax resources
from the general budget (revenue from the
value-added tax, etc.) need to be harnessed.
* Appropriations for upstream R&D to promote
the emergence of significantly more energyefficient vehicles, regardless of the mode
(including aircraft).18
Consideration is also given to:
* Appropriations for the development of modes of
transportation that emit less greenhouse gases.
Particular attention is given to supporting “active”
modes (walking, cycling, etc.), but support for
these modes is sourced mainly from local budgets
rather than from the State. Beyond these relevant
modes, support for the development of urban
public transit infrastructure and for long-distance
rail transport, which have a more favourable GHG
balance than private car transportation,19 are also
taken on board in the DPT Climat. For new
infrastructure development expenditures (such as
those incurred by the French rail network (Réseau
ferré de France - RFF), Article 4 of its statutes
stipulates that any public support is now granted
from the construction start-up stage of
infrastructure work and not during its use year
after year, the climate shares allowed are 8% for
rail, 5% for transport by inland waterways and sea,
1.5% for public transit and 0% for road and airport
____________
____________
18. The two foregoing points are justified by the assumption of a
degree of relevance for all modes of transportation and that by
enhancing the competitiveness of those means of transportation that
continue to be more intensive greenhouse gas generators than
alternative means are not resulting in greater traffic volumes than the
direct gains obtained.
55
19. Although this gap is significant in France, it may be much
more limited in countries where electricity generation is much more
dependent upon fossil fuel sources. Inasmuch as it should be easier in
the long run to reduce the GHG of the electrical mix than to reduce the
use of petrol in private car transportation, much other research on
“low carbon” investment monitoring comes out in favour of projects
that allow for an increase of the electricity share in the transportation
sector energy mix.
56
infrastructure. They are obtained by assessing the
mitigation gains outlined in the socio-economic
assessments undertaken when the draft national
transport infrastructure Plan was prepared.
Reducing these climate shares is meant to point
out that the necessary investments cannot be
justified by a target that is limited to greenhouse
gas emissions reduction. For the expenditures
made under network management (such as
infrastructure built prior to the establishment of
the RFF), the climate shares used are 11.4% for rail
transport and 3.6% for transport by inland
waterway and port networks. They are calculated
based on the assumption that without such grant
aid, all travellers using the network would have to
travel by road. The amount of GHG emissions
that would result from there is estimated and
given a value based on the shadow price of carbon
as per the Quinet report (curve of €32 in 2010 to
€100 in 2030).
* As much as 10%: Appropriations to promote
automated speed control on the road. Actually,
for the range of speeds targeted, reduction of the
average speed thus achieved contributes to a
measurable reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions. Yet, the impact on fuel consumption is
a modest co-benefit of a policy which has the
primary purpose of reducing road accidents. The
value of the gains in terms of greenhouse gas
emissions obtained in a socio-economic benefit
study (if the shadow value of carbon, now
approximately €40, is considered) would not
justify more than 10% to 20% of the expenses
incurred, in which the gains relating to reduced
mortality and morbidity are significantly higher
than the investments.
Agriculture sector
Although the agriculture policy is managed under
a harmonised policy in the European Union, the
government also mobilises government expenditures
in this sector to the tune of €2 billion a year that are
included in the DPT Climat.
For the agriculture sector, a major challenge was to
avoid any double counting of “expenditures for the
57
58
- 10% of appropriations for the compensatory
allowance scheme for areas with natural handicaps.
- Appropriations
used
for
regional
agroenvironmental measures in the amount of 20% for
mitigation and 20% for adaptation.
- 50% of appropriations applied to the agroenvironmental grassland premium.
- 50% of appropriations applied to crop rotation.
- 10% of appropriations applied to other environmental
initiatives and pastoralism.
- 60% of appropriations applied to the afforestation of
agricultural land (former scheme).
* Secondly, appropriations used for the reduction of
fossil energy consumption through enhancement of
energy efficiency and development of renewable
energies used in the agriculture sector, including:
- All appropriations under the energy efficiency plan.
- The share of appropriations contributing to the
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in actual
greenhouses, notably reduction of consumption of
fossil energies and enhancement of the energy
efficiency of greenhouses, or 33% of appropriations
under the greenhouse energy plan for market
garden greenhouses and 19% of those used as
horticultural greenhouses.
- The share of appropriations used under the plan for
modernising animal husbandry buildings to reduce
energy consumption, promote use of wood as a
construction material and put in place effluent
treatment systems (17% of appropriations).
balanced, sustainable management of the territories” in
the DPT Climat and in the annex to the draft finance
law dealing with other “environmental” issues (water,
soil, biodiversity, preservation of landscapes and risk
protection).
As a step coming in between the draft DPT Climat
and the initiating departments of the Ministry of
Agriculture, this identification work led to developing
a matrix of sub-actions (breaking the budget into
tranches of €0.3-40 million) in order to highlight the
relative importance between greenhouse gas emissions
mitigation and adaptation to its impacts and other
environmental issues.
In addition to research and staff costs, the
following items are recognised:
* Firstly, support for practices that promote the
reduction of non-energy related greenhouse gas
emissions in the agriculture sector:
- The share of appropriations ranging from the
vegetal plan for the environment corresponding to
appropriations used for incentives to put in plant
covert to limiting the use of fertilizers and to energy
savings (17% of appropriations).
- Allocations for programme to control pollution of
agricultural origin (Programme de Maîtrise des
Pollutions dʹOrigine Agricole - PMPOA) used for
the reduction of GHG emissions related to
management of animal husbandry effluents (7% of
appropriations).
59
60
* Finally, expenditures contributing to building the
resilience of farms and to adapting the sector to the
impacts of climate change:
- A climate share of 10% of appropriations under the
crop insurance line in the adaptation policy
(improved integration of vulnerability to climate
hazards when making technology choices and the
like) notwithstanding the fact that the blame for
climate change in weather events damaging to
agriculture is very difficult to assess.
- Allocations 10% of appropriations for agricultural
water management systems.
to the question. It has anchored in legislation France’s
greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals and spelled
out notably that these goals were accompanied by
energy efficiency improvement targets. It also makes it
mandatory for the government to publish every two
years a summary of its climate change mitigation
policies; however, it did not include any particularly
binding mechanism for the government in the event it
went astray and proved unable to reach the target it
had set for itself. So, there is potential latitude for the
French government, particularly since the national
III. WORKING CLIMATE CHANGE INTO
NATIONAL POLICIES
debate on the energy transition taking place in the first
At this point, the experts outlined changes in the
budget, in France that opened the way to promote
greater involvement of the elected representatives in
developing the national budget and the perception that
citizens may have of it. This was conducive to a
knowledge and technology transfer promoting
discussion and giving rise in particular to the question:
greenhouse gas emissions by a factor of four. Following
half of 2013 attained the consensual goal of reducing
this debate, MEDDE and most notably the General
Directorate for Energy and Climate were asked to draft
a framework law on the “energy transition.” It will
include proposals to improve governance in this area.
This draft law will be submitted next spring to the
government, then to Parliament. The government of
How is France managing its long-term climate change
plans (between 20 and 50 years)?
The “POPE” law-guidelines for energy policy
development enacted in 2005 is a first point in answer
61
France
is
indeed
concerned
about
long-term
governance regarding this theme, which is absolutely
necessary to achieve its national targets and have a
response proportionate to the issues.
62
The government of France is indeed concerned
about long-term governance regarding this theme,
which is absolutely necessary to achieve its
national targets and have a response
proportionate to the issues.
Vietnam is also attempting to have climate change
worked into management plan strategies.
When we say “work in,” are we talking about
putting climate change into national, sectoral and
regional policies and in the plans? Can it be said
clearly “where” and “how” it will be worked into?
Furthermore, each plan has its targets, terms of
reference and appropriations. Can it be said how the
percentage of total appropriations is determined for
each sector on a scientific basis?
That is both a very important and very challenging
question in implementing a “climate” policy: How can
budget choices be made and priorities set along a
timeline? With regard to planning, we hope to improve
the mid-and long-term steering mechanism by means of
the upcoming energy transition law. An important
point to be stressed is that the targeting greenhouse gas
emissions mitigation will have a very structuring role.
Coming up with an ambitious target accepted by all
stakeholders is a fundamental step.
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From this standpoint, the situation is clearly
readable in France: the mid-and long-term targets have
already been set. We now need to build the capacity to
reach them. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions in
France by a factor of four by 2050 is a target entrenched
in law, very well accepted by all stakeholders. For this
target to attain a concrete result, we had to identify the
carbon deposits in various sectors and the effort
required to deal with them. A number of studies were
done in France on this subject: locate the deposits and
then assess the investment requirements by sector over
time. Investments in centralised energy generation,
notably electricity, have a very long life span. For a
lasting outcome, provision for expenditures under the
climate heading must be made in phases where there is
growth or very strong stock renewal. The choices made
then will have an impact on national emissions for a
very long time, in other words they are ʺlocked inʺ. If
meaningful greenhouse gas options are not identified in
these phases right now, it will cost a great deal of
money to come back to those choices for coming
decades. In other sectors, postponing the effort will
have a lesser impact. The ongoing development of
electricity capacity in Vietnam puts the country in one
of these phases where significant long-term differences
will be found depending on the choices made.
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The development of electricity capacity in
Vietnam puts the country in one of these phases
where significant long-term differences will be
found depending on the choices made.
Let’s take another example-housing renovation in
France. Given the modest rate of renewal in this area,
nothing can be better than a long and sustained
renovation effort. No major technical upheaval is
expected in coming decades in this sector, so the most
reasonable response seems to be to lose no time in
building up the scope of the renovations. The right
answer to the question raised earlier also requires
defining the effort that the government has to put into
research costs, which is virtually impossible. It requires
making a wager on the future, so to speak, and experience
has taught us that this is very often a win-win situation,
so it is worth making the outlay. If the effects of being
ʺlocked inʺ that I mentioned before are set aside, studying
out mitigation sites sector by sector and the public cost of
mitigation, we have useful criteria to define the relative
scope of the expenditure that it would be good to make in
each sector, once an overall target has been set.
However, certain choices (of ambition, of the roll-out
of mitigation efforts over time) cannot be summarised
by economic optimisation alone. Researchers of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
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Panel 3, for instance, synthesise information on carbon
deposits on the basis of accessible sectors in the different
regions of the world, but again, these fields cannot be
taken as indicative because not all of them come with the
same co-benefits. The sector-by-sector evaluation of
expenditures to be made is still at an early stage in terms
of adaptation, but a look at IPCC Panel 2’s report, to
come out next spring, could prove insightful.
Socio-economic assessments can be valuable tools
to optimise the public expenditure and to finance
the most cost-effective mitigation of greenhouse
emissions to the extent possible.
With regard to Mr. Ha’s first question about
including climate change in other policies, France’s
approach also involves putting climate change issues
into sectoral strategies and plans. It has also required
many stakeholders to prepare for the issue by making it
mandatory for them to produce: (i) regional climate-airenergy scenarios, (ii) GHG balance sheets and action
plans to reduce emissions in companies with over 500
employees, (iii) territorial climate-energy plans for all
communities with over 50,000 inhabitants (communes,
clusters of communes, departments, etc.). We could
provide our Vietnamese partners with a summary of
how these different obligations are being met.
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In its SP-RCC, the government of Vietnam is working
climate change factors into existing policies.
Among the five principles in France’s national climate
change adaptation strategies, how many technical norms
are there in which climate change is included?
In the field of housing, for example, thermal
regulations in France have been strengthened in recent
years. France had previously fallen behind other countries
in this area, especially in Europe. In 2007-2008, a major
7% higher on average. The new thermal regulations
target results rather than means. In other words, the
obligation does not focus primarily on the materials to
be used, but on finding a solution to achieve a thermal
performance up to a certain standard in the end. The
regulations also highlight what is referred to as
“summer comfort,” in other words, housing is to be
designed so as not to entail excessive air conditioning
expenses. And there are other aspects involving issues
of air quality, notably ventilation.
national consultation called the Grenelle Environment
Forum sought to find areas of consensus among most of
In France, thermal regulations were amended to
bring norms into the picture, and more broadly,
from an economic standpoint, this was used by
insurance companies looking at risks and current
asset value in determining the insurance premium
cost for their customers, in both housing and
transportation.
the stakeholders (government, social partners, economic
actors, non-governmental organisations, associations) on
the most consensual investments and initiatives leading
to improvement of the environmental policy. Speeding
up improvement of the thermal performance of housing
was then chosen because from an economic viewpoint as
well, it was of value to the stakeholders concerned. France
picked up on that to reinforce its thermal regulations very
significantly. The thrust was in fact to get the stakeholders
to be less short-sighted.
But this evolution was only possible because it was
backed up by the legitimacy of a broad public
consultation. It is estimated that construction costs are
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In other areas, review work on the different building
standards by various network managers is underway
under the Directorate General for Infrastructure,
Transportation and the Sea. The experts involved in this
work could certainly be connected with their Vietnamese
counterparts if deemed helpful.
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A major step forward to enforcing France’s LOLF is
putting more responsibility on the parliamentarian
because he/she understands what he/she is voting on
and is given “tangible” judgement-making, results and
public policy background material. There is also greater
transparency.
With regard to projecting budget missions and budget
programmes over several fiscal years, how are gains
For example, in recent years, a lot of work has been
done on biodiversity policies. This multiyear strategy
along with very thorough parallel implementation has
made it possible to steer and ensure the reality of our
budget forecasts by keeping up with the pace of
commitment and payments for three years or even five
years. This has made it possible to verify the relationship
between the government’s theoretical commitments and
actual payments and better respond to actual needs.
estimated right now in terms of public policies and quality
If one looks only at the budget appropriations
channelled to public policies, this is overly simplistic
and underestimates the cost of implementing these
public policies.
of the budget expenditure?
Those are complex issues that depend, among other
things, on the policies under consideration. Multiyear
projections require first of all comprehensive
knowledge of the costs based on very in-depth cost
accounting that takes into account such things at the
cost of the support policies, the weight of which cannot
be overlooked in public policies. If one looks only at the
budget appropriations channelled to public policies,
this is overly simplistic and underestimates the cost of
implementing these public policies.
For policies based on the allocation of third-party
subsidies, the outcome rests both on economic assumptions
for the future and on dominant trends that can be observed
in the past or with regard to specific strategies of each sector.
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When planning is rolled out over several years, one
has much better idea of the real cost of public policies.
What stands out is that such planning enables the
financial and human resources to be better allocated
and budget management to be optimised by pointing
out possible areas of leeway.
IV. HANDS-ON CHALLENGES IN
POLICY IMPLEMENTATION
France is in a position to make assistance available
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with regard to climate shares either by addressing
directly the mechanics behind the choices made in France
or by doing research on the hypotheses that seem most
relevant to the Vietnamese party based on its own
experience. Here are some points for discussion:
The National Ecological Transition Board states
that the government’s bill on the energy transition
for green growth is based on emissions ceilings
covering five-year periods (carbon budgets)
established about 15 years in advance.
vulnerability to such a risk in investments being made
now. That does not necessarily entail substantial
additional costs, but can be a source of considerable
savings in the future.
Coastline risk prevention plans work with an assumed
60cm rise in the sea level by 2100.
How can the reference framework for long-term urban
development and construction work be determined? Each
scenario requires great investments from government and
society.
Is France taking into account the uncertainty of
What advice can be given to the government of
Vietnam for investments based on what some
contributors have described as the “probable rise” in
the sea level? What is France’s position beyond the
vulnerability studies? Have any investments been
made and what is behind the decisions made?
The question seems to imply that the studies carried
out have no operational results. Well, to illustrate,
coastline risk prevention plans are included in the
documents that address this probable rise of the sea
level in France. In other words, in coastal areas at risk,
there are restrictions on urban development and
restrictions on future development zones where such
risks are inherent. Before relocating already established
activities, there must be no further increasing of the
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scenarios in climate change assumptions and how is it
dealing with this?
Vietnam does not at this time have a scientific
basis allowing it to come up with a precise climate
change scenario. Based on certain forecasts, the
temperature could rise 2°C by the turn of the
century; others claim it could go up 4 to 5°C. Sea
level is predicted to rise not just 1 meter, but 3 to 4
meters.
With regard to uncertainties and how they are
handled, we can look at the latest report from the
international Panel on climate change regarding a
+ 4°C scenario as mentioned (type RCP 8.5). It gives an
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average sea level rise of 45 to 82cm for the 2080-2100
period, or 52 to 98cm by 2100. Actually, in this scenario,
the sea level rise is one that would take place, without
any significant effort to mitigate greenhouse gas
emissions, very rapidly in this time frame, of 8 to 16cm
per decade.
Because we are speaking of the rise in sea level, it
must be kept in mind that the time inertia is very
strong, and it is also important to remember that it will
go on beyond that time horizon (turn of the century).
There is no magic solution for taking the
uncertainty into account; the solution would also
largely depend on future greenhouse gas emissions. It
will likewise depend upon the development trends that
will occur in the various societies during the coming
decades, and upon choices yet to be made collectively.
In France, recommendations had to be open-ended
in order to be sure that infrastructure size is in keeping
with the knowledge we have today. There was also a
need to simplify its concrete application by eliminating
the issue of uncertainty regarding the “sea level rise”
parameter and by determining a base case scenario.
Until very recently, the size of coastal infrastructure
work was simply determined in order to respond to
extreme events occurring in the past.
From now on, if we realise that the average sea level
will also go up, there will certainly be a lot more to be done.
73
But that requires a specific approach and the mix of
mechanisms required to tackle the mid-term adaptation
challenge that has not necessarily been put in place.
As for “private investments,” government expenditure
is not the only consideration and government’s sphere of
action cannot be confined to the expenditure that it
incurs of itself.
In France, recommendations had to be open-ended
in order to be sure that infrastructure size is in
keeping with the knowledge we have today.
The example of the energy efficiency of new
buildings can be taken. In France, regulations have been
beefed up considerably with the Thermal Regulation
legislation enacted in 2012.
To prepare the professional world for this change in
regulations, incentives were first used to help a growing
number of stakeholders choose solutions going beyond
the performance level that was mandatory under the
previous regulation.
During that phase, the government made use of
public budget and fiscal supports.
In concrete terms, certain estimates put the
additional construction induced by this regulation at an
average of 5 to 7%. With knowledge of private
investment in housing (brought together in the
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“national housing accounts” published annually), the
more overarching assessment of additional private
investment prompted by this policy of improved
energy efficiency in buildings can be estimated.
Indeed we are looking here at an increase in
investment, but the private stakeholders will get a return
on this expenditure over time, even though there is the
assumption that energy costs are open-ended, without
fossil fuels becoming significantly more expensive.
Other projections look at an even wider area than
the projection annexed yearly to the draft finance law
and outlined in detail.
An example is the study done by the climate
research team in the Deposit and Consignment Office.
Among other things, a current research project is
focusing specifically on “climate” expenditures in
France (and other countries of Europe) on the
aforementioned scale. They submitted their preliminary
findings to the Warsaw Conference of the Parties to the
Climate Convention in November 2013.
The French government has furthermore just put up
for consultation a white paper on funding the energy
transition that will have to be driven in the decades to
come.
What is the French government’s staff level in
charge of preparing these documents?
At the DPT Climat steering stage, coordinating the
75
drafting of documents requires only a small number of
persons. Last year, the Climate Change Mitigation
Policy Office had only two persons working on this job,
which is but a small part of all the work they do.
But to explain why such a job can be handled with
such a moderate time investment at the coordination
level, it must be remembered that there is proper
information feedback in each of the programmes.
To provide a broader view, the teams in charge of
coordinating the national mitigation policies have a
total staff of about 20. These teams include the
Department for Mitigation of the Greenhouse Gas
Effect and the National Observatory on the Effects of
Global Warming, the latter focusing on adaptation.
Beyond their specific role in defining the national
“climate” policy and keeping it moving, these teams
care for the monitoring required in the framework of
France’s commitments toward the European Union and
the United Nations.
Every four years, France submits to the United
Nations a paper summarising the public policies
implemented. Each year, the country’s greenhouse
gas inventories are reviewed by both the European
Union and the United Nations.
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In each of the “business” directorates, there are two
or three persons in charge of the consolidated budget
report (synthèse budgétaire) and these persons collate all
the information fed in through the business lines of
each department.
The staff members are but a few: only about 20
persons of all handling the budgetary missions for the
processing of all financial information. They consolidate
it for purposes of policy choices and work it into the
ministry’s finance law.
The business directorates get data from the
departments in charge of implementing public policies.
For instance, there are three officers working with
Béatrice Lecomte at the Directorate General for
Transportation, and they have counterpart officers in all
departments that channel in consolidated “business”
and “financial” data.
management cycle, for the purpose of positioning to
deal with more adverse unforeseen events, the finance
law makes provision for what are referred to as
“precautionary reserves.” In other words, at the
beginning of the management cycle in early 2014, 7% of
appropriations are frozen in each of the programmes.
What mechanisms are there to encourage project
managers to save money?
should happen that the regulatory appropriation
During the year, appropriations can be adjusted on
a regulatory basis under certain restrictive conditions:
With Ministry of Financeʹs decree and after consulting
the finance commissions of the two assemblies,
appropriations can be moved from one programme to
another. Furthermore, at the beginning of the
finance
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The law on finance makes provision for what are
referred to as “precautionary reserves.” In other
words, at the beginning of the management cycle
in early 2014, 7% of appropriations are frozen in
each of the programmes.
These budget packages are then reviewed at the end
of the management cycle, usually around OctoberNovember.
At that time, appropriations are reallocated. If it
reallocations are insufficient, an amendment to the
law
can
be
used
to
make
additional
appropriations available.
So, the amendment to the 2013 law on finance, now
under parliamentary review, is making provision for
our line ministries to receive additional appropriations
for very specific operations, such as housing subsidies.
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CONCLUSION: Possible areas of future cooperation
Vietnam has a good basis for its climate change
mitigation policy. However, to make it even more
effective, a few areas can be explored.
Ways of calculating the climate share of a project or a
programme
For calculating the climate share of a programme,
thought can be given to the way climate expenditures
are monitored in the EU budget. The EU has made it a
goal to channel 20% of its expenditures into climate
change mitigation for the 2014-2020 period. Work is
underway to spell out these procedures.
For projects eligible for support from the European
Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and the European
Social Fund (ESF), climate shares of 100%/ 40%/ 0% are
available based on the project category. For details, see
page 16 and following of this document:
http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/what/future/pdf
/preparation/fiche_categorisation_climate%20change%2
0tracking_2013_05_30.pdf20
____________
20. Note: This grid was designed with a relatively broad approach
to what a “low-carbon” investment involves. The climate shares
allowed are therefore sometimes much higher than those allowed in
the DPT Climat annexed to the French state budget. E.g.: rail transport
infrastructure, 40% in the EU versus 12% in the DPT, even though
electricity generation in other EU countries depends much more on
the use of fossil fuels than that in France.
79
In budget monitoring in France, calculation of
“climate shares” is done at the scale of initiatives in the
various government programmes in order to recognise
the indirect contribution of certain national climate
policy project clusters.
The procedure is not broken down to the project
level. Although technically nothing prevents this, it
would result in a substantial administrative burden if it
was applied from an individual assessment of the
various benefits expected from the projects rather than
on the basis of a project typology for which climate
shares have been determined in advance.
Mechanisms of inter-ministerial coordination
Generic recommendations can be made, such as a
sub-sector breakdown of the mitigation targets
included in the green development strategy and
determination of a pilot project action by action, clear
sharing of responsibilities for implementation, etc.
Yet, examples on which future interchange could be
based are different according to the coordination
aspects that the Vietnamese authorities would like to
strengthen as a matter of priority.
It could involve the following:
- Policy steering: Putting in place an overarching
policy that includes the issues associated with
mainstreaming climate change in the roadmap used by
all ministries. First in line are overall operating
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principles (not specifically dealing with climate
change). Implementing a national low-carbon strategy
such as the one France is preparing to draw up and the
compliance links that are contemplated for other
planning documents could also be outlined.
- Technical support: Definition of the shared
technical specifications (these could be illustrated
concretely in presentations for the Vietnamese partners,
including determination of the “shadow” value of
carbon and its use in socio-economic project
assessments, setting up sector task forces under the
aegis of the adaptation plan in France, etc.).
- Budgetary support (for instance, in France, the
DPT Climat annexed to each draft finance law plus any
additional specific monitoring of projects that have
contributed to the national adaptation plan).
Obviously, interchange on the pitfalls and
difficulties encountered would certainly be more
meaningful than a purely academic interchange.
Mechanisms to work the climate dimension into
public policies
Several mechanisms for integration of the climate
dimension into public policies could be covered in more
in-depth exchanges with the Vietnamese authorities.
Among them is the “greening” of the tax structure.
The French authorities could provide an example of how
81
a carbon tax base is already being taken into account in
setting up the energy tax structure. And ecological
taxation includes an incentive to behavioural change in
economic stakeholders which could be a source of ideas
for Vietnam. Thus, the bonus/ malus mechanisms in the
automobile industry or “sustainable development” tax
credits could be outlined. This is also true of the general
tax on polluting activities that have had a significant
impact on waste treatment and the decline of highly
polluting activities such as on air quality.
In the socio-economic assessment projects: Definition
of the “shadow value of carbon” and factoring this aspect
into the relative value of different projects can play a
pivotal role (Shadow price of carbon, report of the Commission
chaired by A. Quinet is available in French at the
following site: http://www.ladocumentationfrançaise.fr/
var/storage/rapports-publics/094000195/0000.pdf).
In studies of risk zoning, taking the probable change
of weather patterns into account rather than simply
considering past statistics on weather extremes (notably
for the sea level) plays a pivotal role. Other levers can also
be drawn upon, such as incentives to ensure that the
investments ear-marked for emissions reduction are part
of funding that is broadly consistent with their specific
target (verification of “carbon neutrality” of operational
programmes funded by the ERDF or planning contracts
between the state and regions).
82
Raising the awareness of consumers and crosscompliance standards (environmentally friendly
packaging) is two other mechanisms contributing to
integration of the climate dimension into public policies
in a broad sense.
Reliable, consolidated and integrated budgetary
and accounting data collection systems among the
various levels of administration
The ministries stressed their need to have reliable
physical and financial data collection tools to brief
Parliament and better steer public policy’s appropriations
and thus reassure international donors regarding the
use of the funds provided.
France’s experience in this area could be outlined in
greater detail. Our system uses a dedicated
nomenclature, one that is unique, cross-departmental
and relating to the public finance legislation, the
relevant data being used by aggregation according to
different criteria and needs, to brief Parliament (DPT) in
steering the policies (with both a timeline and feedback
on the reality and finality of the payments).
It is cross-cutting, merging the references to public
policies (one programme per policy), the implementing
departments (central administration or local authority
departments), the nature of the appropriations
(investment, operating costs, employee costs), the purpose
83
(grant to local public authorities, to companies, subsidies
for public service costs, etc.) and also highlights the
activity benchmarks to round out the information. This
information is coded and included in each commitment
for expenditures and in each payment arising therefrom.
All of this is included in the government’s finance
system. The treasury and budget management
information system (TABMIS) used in Vietnam with the
World Bank funding could be used for this without
having to develop new tools of uncertain application if
they depend on the “good will” of the administrative
departments alone. If it is going to work, such a
database, it must be a routine tool of the departmental
staff, not overburden them and yield added value for the
officers in charge of putting it to use.
84
DANG Cong Khoi, Deputy Director, Legislation Department,
Ministry of Finance.
Tools for Budgeting, Tracking and Steering the Government’s
Financial Effort to Mitigate Climate Change.
LIST OF PRESENTATIONS
Béatrice LECOMTE, ADETEF/ Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable
Development and Energy.
Mitigation of and Adaptation to Climate Change in France:
Statement by TRAN Hong Ha, Deputy Minister, Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment.
Policies and Measures - Tracking Expenditures.
Pierre BRENDER, ADETEF/ Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable
Opening statement by Rémi GENEVEY, Country Director,
Development and Energy.
Agence Française de Développement in Vietnam.
The AFD and Climate Change Mitigation.
Rémi GENEVEY/ Jean-Claude PIRES, AFD in Vietnam.
Guidelines on the Fund Management Mechanism of the Support
Programme in Response to Climate Change and Responsibilities
of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment.
TRUONG Duc Tri, Deputy Director, Department of
Meteorology, Hydrology and Climate Change, Ministry
of Natural Resources and Environment.
Role and Jurisdiction of the Ministry of Planning and Investment
in Funding the Climate Policy and Initial Results of the
Climate Public Expenditures and Investment Review.
NGUYEN Tuan Anh, Deputy Director, Department of
Science, Education, Natural Resources and Environment,
Ministry of Planning and Investment.
Introduction to the Current Expenditures Management Mechanism
and Inventory of Policies and Financial Mechanisms Relating to
Climate Change Mitigation.
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