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Download Unit 10: Chapter 16, Social Behaviour
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Intro psych overheads, unit 10 - social behaviour Social Behaviour Person perception: the process of forming impressions of others. Affected by: 1) physical appearance. - attractive people are over-represented in the media and are mostly portrayed in a highly favourable light i. seen as more intelligent and competent ii. get better jobs and earn higher wages - people with baby-faced features seen as more honest and trustworthy, naïve, submissive, warm, and helpless. - after watching people for 10 seconds on tape, most guess their sexual orientation right 70% of the time. - we sometimes mimic others without being aware of it: “the chameleon effect” (Chartrand & Bargh, 1999). 2) cognitive schemas. - Schemas: cognitive structures that guide information processing. - Social schemas help us quickly process and store information about others. 3) stereotypes. - widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group. i. gender stereotypes ii. age stereotypes iii. ethnic stereotypes iv. occupational stereotypes 4) subjectivity in person perception. - illusory correlation 1 Intro psych overheads, unit 10 - social behaviour 2 The evolutionary perspective: many biases were adaptive in humans’ ancestral environment o e.g. attractiveness o e.g. seeing babies as helpless creatures o e.g. classifying people as quickly as we can o Ingroup: a group one belongs to and identifies with. o Outgroup: a group one does not belong to/identify with. The Attribution process Attributions: inferences that people draw about the causes of events, others’ behaviour, and their own behaviour. Internal attributions: ascribe the causes of behaviour to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, and feelings. External attributions: ascribe the causes of behaviour to situational demands and environmental constraints. Attributions for success and failure: Weiner (1980; 1986; 1994) Internal cause External cause Unstable cause (temporary) Effort, mood, fatigue Stable cause (permanent) Ability, intelligence Luck, chance, opportunity Task difficulty Bias in Attributions Actor-Observer bias: when an actors and an observers often make different attributions fundamental attribution error: observers’ bias is in favor of internal attributions in explaining others’ behaviour, while the actor locates the cause of their behaviour in the situation. Intro psych overheads, unit 10 - social behaviour 3 Defensive attribution: a tendency to blame victims for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way. Self-serving bias: the tendency to attribute one’s successes to personal factors and one’s failures to situational factors. Interpersonal attraction physical attractiveness. o Sprecher & Duck, 1994: the key determinant of romantic attraction was the attractiveness of the other person. o more important for female popularity o The matching hypothesis: males and females of approximately equal physical attractiveness are likely to select each other as partners. similarity effects. o married couples tend to be similar in age, race, religion, social class, personality, education, and attitudes. o also true among friends reciprocity effects. o Reciprocity involves liking those who show they like you. o happier and longer lasting relationships are ones where the partners idealize each other to some extent. Love Hatfield & Berscheid (1988) 1) Passionate love: a complete absorption in another that includes tender sexual feelings and the agony and ecstasy of intense emotion. 2) Companionate love: warm, trusting, tolerant affection for another whose life is deeply intertwined with one’s own. Sternberg (1988) Intro psych overheads, unit 10 - social behaviour 4 Intimacy: warmth, closeness, and sharing in a relationship Commitment: an intent to maintain a relationship despite difficulties and costs passion erodes but intimacy & commitment increase with time feelings of commitment are more predictive of whether couples break up than their ratings of overall love. Cross cultural similarities: - David Buss (1989, 1994): all cultures value mutual attraction, kindness, intelligence, emotional stability, dependability, good health. - males place more emphasis on attractiveness; females put a higher priority on social status and financial resources. Cross cultural differences: - Love as a basis for marriage is a Western invention - Cultures high in collectivism often have arranged marriages Attraction and the Evolutionary perspective certain aspects of good looks signal good health, genes, fertility facial symmetry women’s’ waist- to-hip ratio (.7 to .8) men seek youthfulness and physical attractiveness women seek those with ambition, social status, $ potential Buss (1988): o Men emphasized material resources by buying gifts, bragging o Women enhanced their appearance by dieting, wearing stylish clothes, new hairstyles Intro psych overheads, unit 10 - social behaviour Schmidt & Buss (1996) o For short-term relationships, women should flirt, behave seductively, and claim that rivals are just teases. Men should give gifts and money right off the bat. o For long term relationships, women should display sexual exclusivity and claim that rivals are promiscuous. Men should show their potential for accumulating resources and claim that rivals have less potential Attitudes: positive or negative evaluations of objects of thought Components of attitudes up to 3 different types of components: o cognitive o affective o behavioural Attitudes vary along 3 dimensions: o strength o accessibility o ambivalence vested interest: does the attitude relate to an issue that can affect a person’s personal outcomes? one’s knowledge of an attitude object: the more knowledge you have about an object, the stronger your attitude is. Attitudes and Behaviour: the average correlation between attitudes and behaviour is about .38. Why isn't this relationship more consistent? o haven’t taken into account the strength of the attitude stronger attitudes are more predictive of behaviour o depends on the situation and how you think people expect you to behave. 5 Intro psych overheads, unit 10 - social behaviour 6 Persuasion: what are some of the factors that determine whether persuasion works? Source factors: more successful when the source has high credibility expertise is important when the arguments are ambiguous trustworthiness can be even more important than expertise likeability also increases the effectiveness of the source Message factors: Two sided arguments tend to be more effective Adding weak arguments hurts your effectiveness repetition is effective the validity effect appeals to fear can be effective Receiver factors: forewarning If receiver’s attitudes are incompatible with the message they will be harder to persuade people scrutinize arguments that are contrary to their own beliefs more (disconfirmation bias) stronger attitudes are harder to change prior knowledge leads to increased scrutiny and greater resistance Theories of Attitude Formation and Change Learning theory: the affective component in an attitude can be created through classical conditioning. operant conditioning: when people respond to your attitudes with agreement (reinforcement) or disagreement (punishment) observational learning: other people’s attitudes may rub off on you Intro psych overheads, unit 10 - social behaviour 7 Dissonance theory Leon Festinger’s 1959 study: o had male college students work on dull tasks for an hour. o asked them to “testify” to the next subject that the experiment was interesting. Subject was either paid $1 or $20. o asked the subject about their true feelings about the initial boring task. Found that those paid $1 rated the initial task as more interesting than those who had been paid $20 Cognitive dissonance: when cognitions contradict each other, motivating people to alter their cognitions. o those paid $20 had an obvious reason for behaving inconsistently - they were being paid a lot. Those paid $1 had no readily apparent justification for their lie, and so experienced dissonance. To reduce the dissonance they persuaded themselves that the task wasn’t so bad after all. Self-perception theory Daryl Bem (1967):people think “a dollar isn't enough to get me to lie, so I must have found the task enjoyable” because they are engaging in normal attributional efforts to better understand their own behavior. Elaboration likelihood model Petty & Cacioppo (1986): there are 2 basic routes to persuasion: 1) the central route 2) the peripheral route o central route leads to more enduring attitude change o attitudes changed through the central route predict behaviour better than attitudes changed through peripheral processes. Intro psych overheads, unit 10 - social behaviour Conformity and Obedience: Yielding to others Solomon Asch (1951, 1955, 1956) o key determinants of conformity conformity ↑ as group size ↑ if just one accomplice broke with the majority, this lowers conformity to about ¼ of its peak conformity ↑ when the situation is ambiguous, especially when the judgment is important pressure from ingroup members produces more conformity Obedience: a form of compliance when people follow direct commands Stanley Milgram (1963) 40 men recruited to participate in a Yale University study learner (accomplice) receives shock every time he makes a mistake on a learning task subject gives shock from 15 to 450 volts 300 volts: learner pounds on the wall and falls silent DV: the amount of shock the teacher was willing to administer. Results: 65% went all the way to the end! Milgram’s conclusion: obedience to authority is more common than anyone had previously thought. Cultural variations in conformity and obedience the Asch and Milgram studies have been repeated in various cultures, yielding roughly similar results many reported even higher rates of obedience collectivist cultures encourage more conformity than individualistic cultures. o decline in the amount of conformity in US studies since the 1950s 8 Intro psych overheads, unit 10 - social behaviour 9 Behaviour in Groups Group: two or more people who interact and are interdependent. They tend to have: * roles that allocate special responsibilities to some members * norms about suitable behaviour * a communication structure reflecting who talks to whom * a power structure determining who has the most influence The Bystander effect: people are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than when they are alone. Darley & Latane (1968) o When subject is the only bystander, 80% helped o With one other person besides the subject, 60% helped o With 3 others besides the subject, 30% helped bystander effects are most likely in ambiguous situations diffusion of responsibility: If others are present, each may think that someone else will help. Group productivity and social loafing social loafing: a reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups as compared to when they work alone Latane (1979) o When people thought they were working in larger groups, individual output declined social loafing and the bystander effect share a common cause: diffusion of responsibility in groups. o A group size ↑, responsibility for getting the job done is divided among more people, and many don’t work as hard since their individual contribution is less noticeable Intro psych overheads, unit 10 - social behaviour Decision making in groups Group polarization: when group discussion strengthens a group’s dominant point of view and produces a shift toward a more extreme decision in that direction. o more likely when wrestling with important decisions o risky shift: groups can arrive at riskier decisions than individuals do Groupthink: when members of a cohesive group emphasize concurrence at the expense of critical thinking in arriving at a decision. o Can lead to major blunders o Suspension of critical judgment o Censorship of dissent o “us versus them” o in cohesiveness: the strength of the relationship linking group members to each other and to the group itself Understanding Prejudice Prejudice: a negative attitude held towards members of a group. Discrimination: behaving differently toward members of a group. Prejudicial stereotypes: highly accessible cognitive schemas that can be activated automatically highly resistant to change what people perceive is what they expect to perceive Memory biases confirm people’s prejudices (the illusory correlation effect) 10