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Introduction to
Psychology
Chapter 1
Chapter Overview
• Describe Psychology
o Goals of Psychology
o Fields of Psychology
• Research methods of Psychology
o Experiments within Psychology
• Important people of Psychology
What is Psychology?
• The scientific study of behavior and mental
processes.
Scientists use the SCIENTIFIC
METHOD to be unbiased.
• Psychologists seek to observe, describe, explain,
predict, and modify behavior and mental processes
• Psychologists rely on research to learn whether
certain methods will work before they use them to
help people
Goals of Psychology
• 4 Goals of Psychology
1. Description – describe particular behaviors by careful
observations
2. Explanation – explain behaviors by conducting
experiments
3. Prediction – predict when a behavior that is being
studied will happen in the future
4. Control – modify inappropriate behavior
• Psychologists work in many different fields but they
all focus on studying and explaining behavior and
mental processes
• Behavior is defined as any action that people can
observe or measure, such as walking, talking,
sleeping, and eating
Fields of Psychology
• Psychologists specialize in several different areas of
practice:
o
o
o
o
o
o
Clinical: general health, mental health, child health
Counseling: business or education institutions
Sport psychology: athletes
Experimental psychology: humans, animals
Cognitive psychology: learning
Developmental psychology: changes in people’s lives
Real World Example
• In 2006, the St. Louis Cardinals employed the
services of a sports psychologist to meet with
players, coaches and staff members.
• The Cardinals won the World Series in 2006.
• Do you think the psychologist made a difference?
• Sports psychologists can help athletes improve
performance by measuring (through
experimentations) athletes’ heart rates and other
body processes and by interviewing athletes
o Psychologists predict that athletes perform best when
anxiety is moderate
o Psychologists help athletes control their behavior and
mental processes by teaching them how to control
anxiety.
Psychological Professionals
Fields of Psychology
• There are 9 fields of Psychology
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Structuralism
Functionalism
Psychoanalytical/Psychodynamic
Behavioral
Humanistic
Cognitive
Neuroscience/biopsychology
Evolutionary
Sociocultural
The “Father of Modern Psychology”
•
•
•
•
1879
Wilhelm Wundt
Founded first psychology lab in Germany (1879)
Associated with the Structuralism field of Psychology
1. Structuralism
• Focused primarily on investigation of thought
processes (The structure of the mind)
2. Functionalism
• Founded by William James
• How do people function in the real
world?
• Studied how people work, play,
and adapt to their surroundings.
o He was influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural
selection.
o Not just physical adaptations, but
mental/behavioral ones as well.
3. Psychoanalytical/Psychodynamic
• Founded by Sigmund Freud
• Psychoanalysis: Examines
psychological problems that are
presumed to be caused by
conflicts.
• People repressed (pushed
away) their feelings to an
unconscious part of the mind,
leading to nervous disorders.
History Lesson
• Freud lived in the Victorian
Era (Late 1800s – Early 1900s)
• Society never spoke of sex.
• Even tables were surrounded
by cloth, as to not show the
legs
• Though men often had
mistresses, women had to
repress their feelings.
• Many sought Freud’s help.
4. Behavioral
• Lead by Ivan Pavlov
o Pavlov’s Dogs – Dogs salivated at the
sound of a bell because a bell was rung
each time they were fed.
o Classical Conditioning
• Observing behavior through scientific
method
• Other notable behavioral psychologists
o B. F. Skinner - believed behavior depends
on what happens are people are exposed
to a “stimulus”
o John Watson - believed people have 3
reactions: fear, rage, love
5. Humanistic
• Stresses free will, self actualization and
positive growth seeking nature of humans
• Leaders:
o Abraham Maslow
o Carl Rogers
• Emphasis on human potential. Be the best
you can be!
6. Cognitive
• Researches areas of thought, perception and
information processing
• 1960s
7. Neuroscience/biopsychology
• Explores the role of biological factors such as
genetics in humans (scientific)
• For example, Schizophrenia is being studied as a
potential psychological disorder that is linked to
genetics
8. Evolutionary
• Focuses on natural selection, adaptation, and
evolution of behavior
9. Sociocultural
• Combination of social and cultural psych, focusing
on social interactions, cultural determinants, and
mental processes
• Social: Studies groups, social roles, and rules of
social actions, and relationships
• Cultural: Study of social norms, values, and
expectations
Biopsychosocial Model
• An integrative model
combining the seven major
perspectives in
contemporary psychology
•
Structuralism and Functionalism are not
located on the diagram. These older
schools of thought have now been
blended in with the other 7 schools.
Psychology: The Science
• Psychologists follow scientific procedures similar to
the way other scientists do
• Research and experiments help investigate causeand-effect relationships
2 Types of Research
Basic Research
Applied Research
• conducted to study
theoretical questions
without trying to solve a
specific problem
(general ideas or
concepts)
• utilizes the principles
and discoveries of
psychology for
practical purposes
(finding solutions to real
world problems)
The Scientific Method
1.
• Identify question and literature review
2.
• Develop a testable hypothesis
3.
• Select a research method and collect data
4.
• Analyze the data and accept or reject the hypothesis
5.
• Publish, replicate and seek scientific review
6.
• Build a theory
The Scientific Method
Ethical Guidelines
• Psychologists must comply with extremely strict
ethical guidelines
• The American Psychological Association (APA) has
published specific guidelines that must be followed
Ethical Guidelines (cont.)
• There are three areas that are addressed by
the APA
1. Human participants: informed consent, voluntary
participation, debriefing, confidentiality, and use
of students as subjects
• #1 is the most rigorous guideline because it
deals with the rights of people being studied
2. Animal Rights: cruelty to animals
3. Clients in therapy: confidentiality
Animals in Research
• Only a small number of psychological studies
involve animals
• Psychologists use animals only when there is no
alternative and when they believe the benefit
outweighs the harm
• Most psychological studies that use animals do not
harm the animals
4 Methods of Research
1.
2.
3.
4.
Experimental
Descriptive
Correlational
Biological
1. Experimental Research
• The only method of the four that can identify cause and
effect
• Experimental research consists of several variables:
o Independent Variables: factors the experimenter manipulates
o Dependent Variables: measurable behaviors of the
participants
o Experimental controls: include control condition - participants
are treated identically to participants in experimental
condition, except that the independent variable is not
applied to them
Experimental Research (cont.)
• In the experimental condition: all participants are
exposed to the independent variable
• Experimental Group: group that receives a
treatment in an experiment
• Control Group: group that receives no treatment in
an experiment
Here’s an
Example
2. Descriptive Research
• This includes several types of studies to gather data
o Naturalistic Observation: used to study behavior in its
natural habitat
o Surveys: tests, questionnaires, and interviews to
sample a wide variety of behaviors and attitudes
(must choose people carefully)
o Case study: in-depth study of a single research
participant
Surveys
• Psychologists conduct surveys by asking people to
fill out written questionnaires or by interviewing
people verbally
o By interviewing people with direct questions
psychologists can get information about people’s
attitudes and behaviors
Problems with Surveys
• The findings of interviews and questionnaires may
not be completely accurate because:
1. People may not be honest about their attitudes or
behavior
2. People may limit their responses for privacy reasons
3. People may say what they think the interviewers
want to hear
3. Correlational Research
• Allows scientists to determine the degree of
relationship between variables
• Positive, negative and zero correlations are
discussed when using this type of research
Correlation in Psychology
• Correlation is a major relationship within psychology
• It CANNOT show a Cause and Effect Relationship
• Just because two things are related does not mean
one causes the other
4. Biological Research
• The scientific study of psychology
• Studies the brain and nervous system
• Tests used in biological research include:
o Electrical recordings of brain activity (EEG)
o Computed tomography (CT)
o Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Experimental Research
Descriptive Research
Correlational Research
Biological Research
Manipulation and
control of variables
Naturalistic Observation,
surveys, case studies
Statistical analyses of
relationships between variables
Studies the brain and other
parts of the nervous system
Purpose
Purpose
Purpose
Purpose
Identify cause and effect
(Meets the explanation
goal of psychology)
Observe, collect, and
record data (Meets the
descriptive goal of
psychology)
Identify relationships and
how well one variable
predicts another (Meets
the predictive goal)
Identify causation, as well
as description, and
prediction (Meets 1 or
more of the four goals)
Pros
Allows
researchers
precise
control
over
variables
and cause
& effect
Cons
Ethical
concerns,
practical
limitations,
artificiality of
lab conditions,
uncontrolled
variables may
confound
results,
researchers &
participant
biases
Pros
Cons
Pros
Cons
Minimizes
artificiality,
easier to
collect data,
allows
description
of behavior
& mental
processes as
they occur
Little or no
control over
variables,
researcher &
participant
biases,
cannot
explain
cause &
effect
Helps clarify
relationship
s between
variables
that cannot
be examined
by other
methods
and allows
prediction
Researchers
cannot
identify
cause &
effect
Pros
Cons
Shares many
or all of the
pros of
experimental,
descriptive,
and
correlational
research
Shares many
or all of the
cons of
experimental,
descriptive,
and
correlational
research
Critical Thinking
• Making reasoned judgments
1. Most “truths” need to be tested
2. All evidence is not equal in quality
3. Just because an expert said it, doesn’t mean it’s
true
4. Keep an open mind
Gestalt Psychology
• Gestalt psychology is an alternative to behaviorism and
structuralism
• It is based on the idea that our perceptions of objects
are more than the sum of their parts. They are wholes
that give shape, or meaning, to the parts
• Gestalt Psychology aims to organize how the mind
organizes pieces of information into meaningful wholes
• It was developed by German psychologists Max
Wertheimer and Wolfgang Köhler