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Unit 2: History and Approaches (2-4% AP Exam) & Research Methods (8-10% AP Exam) Textbook: Chapter 1, Chapter 2 Overview: Psychology has evolved markedly since its inception as a discipline in 1879. There have been significant changes in the theories that psychologists use to explain behavior and mental processes. In addition, the methodology of psychological research has expanded to include a diversity of approaches to data gathering. AP Learning Objectives: ● Recognize how philosophical perspectives shaped the development of psychological thought. ● Describe and compare different theoretical approaches in explaining behavior: — structuralism, functionalism, and behaviorism in the early years; — Gestalt, psychoanalytic/psychodynamic, and humanism emerging later; — evolutionary, biological, cognitive and biopsychosocial as more contemporary approaches. ● Recognize the strengths and limitations of applying theories to explain behavior. ● Distinguish the different domains of psychology: — biological, clinical, cognitive, counseling, developmental, educational, experimental, human factors, industrial–organizational, personality, psychometric, and social. ● Identify the major historical figures in psychology (e.g., Mary Whiton Calkins, Charles Darwin, Dorothea Dix, Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, William James, Ivan Pavlov, Jean Piaget, Carl Rogers, B. F. Skinner, Margaret Floy Washburn, John B. Watson, Wilhelm Wundt). Overview: Psychology is an empirical discipline. Psychologists develop knowledge by doing research. Research provides guidance for psychologists who develop theories to explain behavior and who apply theories to solve problems in behavior. AP Learning Objectives: ● Differentiate types of research (e.g., experiments, correlational studies, survey research, naturalistic observations, and case studies) with regard to purpose, strengths, and weaknesses. ● Describe how research design drives the reasonable conclusions that can be drawn (e.g., experiments are useful for determining cause and effect; the use of experimental controls reduces alternative explanations). ● Identify independent, dependent, confounding, and control variables in experimental designs. ● Distinguish between random assignment of participants to conditions in experiments and random selection of participants, primarily in correlational studies and surveys. ● Predict the validity of behavioral explanations based on the quality of research design (e.g., confounding variables limit confidence in research conclusions). ● Distinguish the purposes of descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. ● Apply basic descriptive statistical concepts, including interpreting and constructing graphs and calculating simple descriptive statistics (e.g., measures of central tendency, standard deviation). ● Discuss the value of reliance on operational definitions and measurement in behavioral research. ● Identify how ethical issues inform and constrain research practices. ● Describe how ethical and legal guidelines (e.g., those provided by the American Psychological Association, federal regulations, local institutional review boards) protect research participants and promote sound ethical practice. Structuralism Introspection Functionalism Psychoanalysis Gestalt psychology Behaviorism Humanistic psychology Nature-nurture issue Natural selection Biopsychosocial approach Biological psychology (neuroscience) Evolutionary psychology Psychodynamic psychology Behavioral psychology Cognitive psychology Social-cultural psychology Basic research Applied research Counseling psychology Clinical psychology Psychiatry Hindsight bias Critical thinking Theory Hypothesis Operational definition Replication Case study Survey Population Representative sample Random sample Social desirability bias Naturalistic observation Correlation Correlation coefficient Scatterplot Illusory correlation Experiment Experimental group Control group Random assignment Independent variable Dependent variable Confounding (extraneous) variables Single-blind procedure Double-blind procedure Placebo Placebo effect Descriptive statistics Measure of central tendency Mean Median Mode Measure of variability Range Standard deviation Z scores Normal distribution Skewed distributions Inferential statistics Statistical significance Null hypothesis Informed consent Confidentiality Debriefing Key People: Mary Whiton Calkins Charles Darwin Dorothea Dix Sigmund Freud G. Stanley Hall William James Abraham Maslow Ivan Pavlov Jean Piaget Carl Rogers B.F. Skinner Margaret Floy Washburn John B. Watson Max Wertheimer Wilhelm Wundt