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Learning
Chapter 5
Learning
• The process by which practice or
experience results in a relatively
permanent change in behavior
• Conditioning
– A simple form of learning in which a
specific pattern of behaviors is learned in
the presence of well-defined stimuli
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
• Learning in which a response naturally
caused by one stimulus comes to be
elicited by a different, formerly neutral
stimulus
• Ivan Pavlov
– Accidentally discovered classical
conditioning
– His experiments on salivation in dogs
turned into research on learning
Elements of Classical Conditioning
• Unconditioned stimulus (US)
– A stimulus that automatically causes a
specific response in an organism
– And example of a US would be food
• Unconditioned response (UR)
– The response caused by a US
– The UR is automatic and unlearned
– An example of a UR is salivation in
response to food
Elements of Classical Conditioning
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
– A formerly neutral stimulus that is paired
with a US and eventually causes the
desired response all by itself
– An example of a CS is the bell in Pavlov’s
studies
• Conditioned Response (CR)
– The learned response to the CS
– An example is salivation in response to the
bell
Classical Conditioning Procedure
Before Conditioning
Bell
(CS)
No
Response
Food
(US)
Salivation
(UR)
Classical Conditioning Procedure
During Conditioning
Food
(US)
Bell
(CS)
Salivation
(UR)
Classical Conditioning Procedure
After Conditioning
Bell
(CS)
Salivation
(CR)
Classical Conditioning In
Humans
• Many phobias are the result of
classical conditioning
– The “Little Albert” experiment
demonstrated a classically conditioned
phobia
• Desensitization therapy
– A technique that uses classical
conditioning to treat phobias
– Person learns to relax in presence of
stimulus that used to be upsetting
Classical Conditioning in Humans
• Classical conditioning is
selective
– Preparedness is the notion that
humans are predisposed to develop
certain phobias because they have
survival value
– May explain common fears such as
dark, heights, and snakes
Classical Conditioning in Humans
• Taste aversion
– Learned association between the
taste of a certain food and a feeling of
nausea or revulsion
– This learning can occur quickly, often
with only one pairing
– Speed of learning is likely related to
survival instincts
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
• Learning in which an organism’s
behavior is followed by a reward or
punishment
• Organism learns to perform
behavior in order to gain a reward
or avoid a punishment
Elements of Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcer
– A stimulus or event that follows a
behavior and makes that behavior
more likely to occur again
• Punisher
– A stimulus or event that follows a
behavior and makes that behavior
less likely to occur again
Types of Reinforcement
• Negative reinforcer (-)
• Positive reinforcer
– Removes something
(+)
unpleasant from the
– Adds something
environment following
rewarding following
a behavior, making
a behavior, making
that behavior more
that behavior more
likely to occur again
likely to occur again
– Taking an aspirin to
relieve a headache is
– Giving a dog a treat
an example
for fetching a ball is
an example
Punishment
• Goal of punishment is to decrease the
occurrence of a behavior
• Effective punishment
– Should occur as soon as possible after the
behavior
– Should be sufficient, i.e., strong enough
– Should be certain, occurring every time the
behavior does
– Should be consistent
Punishment
• Not as effective as reinforcement
• Does not teach proper behavior,
only suppresses undesirable
behavior
• Causes upset that can impede
learning
• May give impression that
inflicting pain is acceptable
Operant Conditioning is Selective
• Operant conditioning techniques work
best with behaviors that would
typically occur in a specific situation
• Superstitious behavior
– Tendency to repeat behaviors that are
followed closely by a reinforcer, even if they
are not related
– For example, a particular pair of socks might
become “lucky” if something good
happened when you wore them
Learned Helplessness
• Failure to try to avoid •Powerlessness
an unpleasant
•Abusive Homes
stimulus because in
•Poverty
the past it was
unavoidable
•Reservation System
• Possible model for
•Welfare-Dependency Cycle
depression in humans
•Attributes
Sweat Shop
Slot Machine
Soda Machine
Lacrosse Game
Salaries
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Continuous
Reinforcement
Variable Interval
Fixed
Interval
Cognitive Learning
• Learning that depends on mental activity
that is not directly observable
• Involves such processes as attention,
expectation, thinking, and memory
Observational Learning
•Social Learning Theory focuses on what we
learn from observing other people
•Observational or vicarious learning occurs
when we see the consequences of other
people’s behavior
Parenting Styles
Permissive-Indulgent
Permissive-Indifferent
•More responsive than
demanding
•Nontraditional and
lenient, do not require
mature behavior, allow
considerable self-regulation
and avoid confrontation
•Fail to set appropriate
limits
•Results: disrespectful,
immature, impulsive
•Low in both
responsiveness and in
level of demand
•Neglectful &
inattentive
•Little emotional
support
•Result: overly
dependent, lack social
skills, and self control
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian
•Highly rigid
•Obedience- and statusoriented, and expect
their orders to be obeyed
without explanation
•Well-ordered &
structured environments
w) clearly stated rules
•Result: poor
communication, moody,
distrustful, withdrawn
Authoritative
•Demanding and
responsive
•Firm structure and
guidance
•Assertive, but not
intrusive and
restrictive.
•Disciplinary
methods are
supportive, rather than
punitive.
•Result: self reliant &
responsible, selfregulated as well as
cooperative.
Parenting Prompts
1. What are the styles among team members, and
provide your best reasoning for choosing each
style. Defend it.
2. Describe the most common type you have
observed among various relationships & within
different households
3. Which method(s) is/are portrayed in the media;
which is the most prevalent; and to what extent
has the media influenced perceptions of
parenting styles--as an example of the cognitive
and observational learning processes?
Concepts
Section 1
Section 2
Learning
Operant Conditioning
Conditioning
Reinforcers
Classical Conditioning
Punishers
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Positive Reinforcers
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Negative Reinforcers
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Punishment
Conditioned Response (CR)
Learned Helplessness
Concepts
Section 3
Section 4
Skinner Box
Cognitive Learning
Shaping
Social Learning Theory
Extinction
Observational Learning
Spontaneous Recovery
Schedule of Reinforcement
Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery
• Classical
– US and CS are no
longer paired,
eliminating the CR =
Extinction
– Spontaneous recovery
occurs when the CR
temporarily returns
without additional
training
• Operant
– occurs when
reinforcement is stopped,
eliminating the
conditioned behavior
– Spontaneous recovery
occurs when behavior
temporarily returns
without additional training
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Interval schedules
– Reinforcement depends on the passing of time
– Fixed-interval schedule
• Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a fixed
amount of time has passed
• Example: receiving a paycheck every two weeks
– Variable-interval schedule
• Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a variable
amount of time has passed
• Example: pop quizzes
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Ratio schedules
– Reinforcement depends on the number of responses
made
– Fixed-ratio schedule
• Reinforcement follows a fixed number of behaviors
• Example: being paid on a piecework basis
– Variable-ratio schedule
• Reinforcement follows a variable number of behaviors
• Example: playing slot machines
Schedules
Part 1)
Create an example of each Schedule of
Reinforcement…then
Part 2)
Justify how each meets the criteria for
their respective Schedule.
Sequence as follows:
1. Fixed Interval
3. Fixed Ratio
2. Variable Interval
4. Variable Ratio
Response Patterns to Schedules of Reinforcement